Natural vegetation and forests of Pakistan

Coniferous trees of the northern mountains are mostly evergreen with soft wood and needle-shaped leaves. Deciduous trees are those of the hot tropical thorn forests.

Mangroves grow on the tidal flats of the Indus and Hub delta along the Arabian Sea coast, where river water and silt mix with salty sea water. River-bank forests are riverain (bela) forests.

Changa Manga near Lahore was planted in 1866 as the first irrigated forest, to provide wood for the railways and recreation.

Acacia (kikar) is a tree of the tropical thorn forests of the Indus plain, which the book describes as a land of low rainfall with a mostly semi-arid climate. So D matches the book.

Acacia is drought-resistant and also survives in arid areas, so some keys give B; cold and humid climates are clearly wrong.

Kharan is in Baluchistan. Thal and Cholistan are in Punjab, and Thar and Nara are in Sindh.

In the book's altitude table, sub-tropical scrub (dry) forests and tropical thorn forests are placed at the 1,000 m level and below, on the foothills and dry slopes. Sea level has mangroves; above 3,000 m are coniferous and alpine forests.

Avicennia Alba is, with Rhizophora, a main species of mangroves, which grow in the coastal areas of Sindh and Baluchistan.

The Rachna Doab project reclaims land between the Ravi and Chenab from waterlogging and salinity by planting thousands of trees.

Mangrove roots spread in the salty sea water of tidal flats, so they are known as floating forests.

Fir and spruce are coniferous trees that grow between 1,000 m and 4,000 m in the northern mountains (highlands).

Forests of Pakistan change with altitude from the coast to the northern mountains. The book groups them as productive (natural) and protective (planted) forests:

• Alpine forests (4,000 to 4,500 m): conical, stunted evergreen trees such as deodar and kail.
• Coniferous forests (1,000 to 4,000 m): tall evergreen soft-wood trees such as fir, spruce, blue pine and deodar.
• Tropical thorn forests (Rakh) (sea level to 1,000 m): deciduous hard-wood trees such as kikar and acacia.
• Sub-tropical scrub forests on dry slopes of the western mountains; riverain (bela) forests along the Indus; mangroves on the coast.
• Irrigated plantations (protective forests) such as Changa Manga.

Pakistan has a semi-arid climate with low rainfall, so its natural forest cover is only about 5%, far below the 20 to 25% needed. Irrigated forests (man-made plantations in canal-irrigated tracts) are important because:

• They increase tree cover and protect land from soil erosion; they give shade along roads.
• They control waterlogging and salinity (eucalyptus absorbs sub-soil water), as in the Rachna Doab project.
• They supply wood, firewood and fodder, protect crops from strong winds, and provide recreation and jobs; Changa Manga (1866) supplied wood for the railways.

Productive forests grow naturally according to natural factors without human activity; protective forests are planted by people or government schemes.

Productive forests supply timber, while protective forests mainly improve barren land and protect the soil.

The government of Pakistan protects the environment through several departments and programmes:

• The forest department restricts lumbering and runs tree plantation campaigns twice a year (spring and monsoon) with free saplings.
• Projects such as the Billion Tree Tsunami in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Miyawaki urban forests, irrigated forests and the Rachna Doab reclamation project.
• The Ministry of Climate Change makes policies on pollution, wildlife, biodiversity, climate change and desertification, encourages eco-tourism, and is the focal point for the UNFCCC.
• Promotion of gas supply and renewable energy (solar, wind, hydroelectricity) to replace fuel wood.

Mangroves are the coastal forests on the tidal flats of the Indus and Hub delta. They are important for Pakistan because:

• They protect the coast against sea storms, tsunamis and rising sea levels.
• They are the breeding ground for small fish and shrimp, which have great local and international demand, supporting the fishing industry.
• They store up to five times more carbon per hectare than land forests, which helps fight climate change.
• Coastal people use their wood for boats, fishing rods, baskets and fuel, and they support rich biodiversity.

Deforestation is the large-scale cutting of trees for commercial use, fuel or farming. Its effects are:

• Soil erosion and floods: rainwater rushes down bare slopes carrying soil; silt fills reservoirs, riverbeds and canals and causes heavy floods.
• Less water and electricity: silt reduces dam storage and hydroelectricity, causing load shedding.
• Climate change: less evapotranspiration causes untimely rain and drought and lowers crop yields.
• Pollution and loss of biodiversity: air, water and soil quality falls; animals lose habitat and some tree species may disappear; land degradation can lead to famine.

Mangroves grow on the tidal flats of the Indus and Hub delta, where river water and silt mix with sea water. They are important for fishing because:

• They are the breeding ground for small fish and shrimp; their roots give shelter and food to young fish.
• They make fishing the main occupation of coastal people: boat making, fishing nets, fish processing, packing and sale, and fish meal for poultry feed.
• Their wood is used for boats and fishing rods, and they protect fishing villages and harbours (such as Ibrahim Hyderi) from storms.

So the book says intensive care of mangroves will bring better returns for the fishing industry.

Introduction

Deforestation is the frequent cutting of trees on a large scale for commercial use or fuel wood. Pakistan's natural forest cover is only about 5% (2024), far below the 20 to 25% needed for a stable economy, and it is still falling.

Causes

Wood-based industries (sports goods, furniture, chipboard, veneer, plywood), clearing for agriculture, tourism, industry, urban development and roads, nomadic grazing, and cutting for fuel where natural gas is not available.

Effects on the land

• Soil erosion: bare slopes lose topsoil to rain and wind; overgrazed land becomes barren.
• Floods: rainwater runs off quickly with silt and causes heavy floods, as in the 2010 floods in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Baluchistan.
• Land degradation and desertification: crop production falls; drought-prone areas turn into desert.
• Landslides in the northern mountains, blocking roads such as the Karakoram Highway.
• Loss of biodiversity: animals lose their habitat and some tree species may disappear permanently.

Effects on the economy

• Agriculture: low crop yields, untimely rain and drought reduce income and food supply, risking famine.
• Energy: silt deposited in dams and reservoirs (for example Tarbela and Mangla) reduces storage and hydroelectricity, causing load shedding and higher costs.
• Infrastructure: floods damage roads, bridges, houses and canals; money must be spent on repair and relief.
• Industry: less timber for furniture, sports goods and construction; more wood must be imported.
• Tourism and fishing: loss of forests and mangroves harms tourism in the north and fishing on the coast.
• Health: more air, water and soil pollution increases medical costs.

Remedies

Afforestation campaigns (Billion Tree Tsunami), replanting after cutting, gas and renewable energy in place of fuel wood, and strict forest laws.

Conclusion

Deforestation has damaged Pakistan's soil, water and climate and has cost the economy through floods, lower crops and less electricity. Protecting and expanding forests is essential for sustainable development.

Introduction

Afforestation means planting trees on barren land; re-afforestation is planting trees where forests were cut. Pakistan has a semi-arid climate and only about 5% forest cover, so afforestation is vital to meet people's needs.

Economic importance

• Timber and raw materials for furniture, sports goods, construction, paper and crafts; fruit trees for commercial use.
• Fuel wood and fodder: firewood for homes and leaves for livestock.
• Reclaiming land: irrigated forests near Sukkur and Kotri barrages, Wanbachran (Thal) and Chichawatni (Sahiwal), and the Rachna Doab project control waterlogging and salinity, returning land to farming.
• Protecting crops and infrastructure: shelter belts protect crops from wind; forests check floods and erosion, saving dams, roads and canals.
• Employment: nurseries, planting, maintenance and protection give jobs; campaigns twice a year provide free saplings.
• Tourism: forests and parks attract tourists and support eco-tourism promoted by the Ministry of Climate Change.

Social importance

• Healthy environment: trees absorb carbon dioxide and give oxygen; urban Miyawaki forests reduce pollution in cities.
• Recreation: Changa Manga (1866) provides recreation; parks improve the quality of city life.
• Community development: the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (1995) in Baluchistan involved local people; the Billion Tree Tsunami restored forests in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
• Climate protection: forests reduce heat, droughts and floods, protecting homes and lives.
• Crafts and culture: wood crafts, basketry and handicrafts support traditional skills.

Challenges

Lack of care of saplings, water shortage and illegal cutting reduce benefits; replanting should follow cutting immediately and awareness must be raised.

Conclusion

Afforestation meets people's needs for wood, fuel, fodder, jobs, clean air and recreation, and protects land and climate. It is one of the cheapest ways to build a sustainable economy.

Introduction

Mangroves are trees and shrubs of the coastal and intertidal zones. In Pakistan they grow on the tidal flats of the Indus and Hub delta, where river water and silt mix with sea water. Main species are Avicennia Alba and Rhizophora. Mitigation means reducing the severity of a problem; mangroves are a powerful ally against climate change.

1. Carbon sequestration

Mangroves capture atmospheric carbon and store it in their roots and sediments. Their intricate root system traps a large amount of carbon and prevents it from returning to the atmosphere. They sequester up to five times more carbon per hectare than land forests.

2. Coastal protection

Pakistan's coastline is very vulnerable to rising sea levels and extreme weather. Mangroves protect the coast against sea storms, cyclones, tsunamis and erosion.

3. Biodiversity and resilience

The mangrove ecosystem supports a rich variety of plants and animals. Preserving biodiversity keeps the ecosystem stable and increases the resilience of the environment to climate change.

4. Livelihoods and adaptation

Coastal people depend on marine resources. Mangroves are breeding grounds for fish and shrimp and supply wood for boats and fuel, so they help people adapt to a changing climate.

Threats

Dams and irrigation reduce fresh water and silt reaching the delta, which is shrinking; urbanisation, port expansion, oil spills, beach developments and waste dumping also threaten mangroves.

Efforts for conservation

The Fisheries Department of Sindh with NGOs set up nurseries; the Mangrove Action Project works with communities, researchers and local governments; WWF raised awareness and increased about 8,000 hectares for sustainable use.

Evaluation

Mangroves are among the most effective natural tools against climate change, but carbon conservation can conflict with local people's economic needs. Legal frameworks, participation of local communities, effective policies, awareness and international cooperation are needed so that mangroves survive.

Conclusion

By storing carbon, protecting the coast and supporting biodiversity and livelihoods, mangroves play a key role in mitigating climate change; concrete efforts are needed to conserve and restore them.

Introduction

Pakistan's forests range from mangroves on the coast to alpine forests at 4,500 m, spread over difficult terrain. Geographical representations and geospatial technology use high-resolution satellite imagery and modern tools to map and monitor forest cover, land-use change and environmental features.

Main tools

• GIS (Geographic Information System): integrates hardware, software and data to capture, manage, analyse and display spatial data and imagery; prepares 3D maps.
• Remote Sensing (RS): satellite images and drones record forest cover over large and remote areas.
• GPS (Global Positioning System): fixes exact locations of forests, plantations and field data.
• Other tools: drones, camera traps and audio records, analysed with machine learning.
• LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): a laser measures distance by timing the reflected light; gives the 3D structure, height and density of forests with centimetre-level accuracy.

Why these tools are needed

• Mapping types and distribution of forests: satellite images and GIS show where each forest type grows and its density.
• Detecting deforestation: machine learning can detect forest destruction and even a single tree felling.
• Predicting forest fires and planning harvests; LiDAR detects fires and maps individual trees.
• Planning afforestation and re-afforestation efficiently; drones and robots can help stop deforestation.
• Forecasting: GIS models future forest conditions under different scenarios.
• Water resources: tracking irrigation water, mapping aquifers and evaluating the impact of climate change on water.
• Measuring results: GIS in Pakistan has detected 4.2 million hectares of planted forests, including 4.8% coniferous and scrub forests.
• Utility safety: LiDAR helps utility companies find vegetation hazards and plan tree trimming.

Conclusion

Because forests are vast, remote and changing, field surveys alone cannot track them. Geospatial tools give accurate, up-to-date maps that help the forest department protect existing forests and plan new ones.

Introduction

Natural vegetation, flora and fauna have a great influence on how people live. In Pakistan vegetation differs sharply from the northern mountains to the coast, and people's houses, work and income differ with it.

1. Northern mountains

Dense forests, lofty mountains and glaciers. People live in small houses with sloping roofs; in cold winters they store fuel wood and make wood crafts, woollen shawls, caps, carpets and embroidery. They practise transhumance, moving cattle to warmer areas in winter. In summer they grow food crops and fruits and serve tourists; after the Karakoram Highway many work as hotel staff and guides.

2. Western mountains

Low rainfall (about 250 mm) and thin cover of thorny bushes. People practise nomadic livestock farming and mining (coal, marble, limestone), work in cement, sugar and chemical industries and transport, and make leather, marble and woollen goods; the area is famous for truck art. Many migrate for work.

3. Baluchistan plateau

Scanty rainfall (about 125 mm) and sparse vegetation. Karez irrigation (now tube wells) supports fruit and vegetable farming; nomadic herding is common; juniper forests near Quetta are declining. People work in mining, and on the coast in fishing at Gwadar, Pasni and Ormara.

4. Indus plain

Thin natural vegetation (acacia, grasses) but fertile land and irrigated forests. Agriculture is the main occupation ("bread basket of Pakistan"), with industry, urbanisation and transport; brick houses in the plains and mud houses in the Cholistan, Nara and Thar deserts.

5. Coastal area

Mangroves of the Indus and Hub delta make fishing the main occupation: boat making, nets, fish processing, packing, fish meal and ice factories; Ibrahim Hyderi is the wholesale fish market of Sindh. Beaches give recreation.

General impact

Forests provide fresh air, wood, fruits, medicines, fodder and recreation. Where vegetation is rich, people depend on forests and tourism; where it is thin, they depend on herding, mining or irrigation.

Conclusion

Vegetation shapes housing, occupations, migration and income across Pakistan. Protecting forests therefore protects people's livelihoods.

Natural vegetation is the flora and fauna found in different regions of a country, growing naturally according to climate and soil.

Flora is a plant community that grows over an area and is left undisturbed by humans; it includes trees, thorny bushes and shrubs of all kinds.

Fauna is all of the animal life present in a particular region at a time. A forest is a region with a high density of trees; it is nature's most efficient ecosystem and produces oxygen.

Altitude is the height above sea level. It directly controls temperature and therefore the type of trees, so areas at the same altitude have the same vegetation.

• Sea level: mangroves on the coast.
• Up to 1,000 m: tropical thorn and sub-tropical scrub forests.
• 1,000 to 4,000 m: coniferous forests.
• 4,000 to 4,500 m: alpine forests.
• Above 5,000 m: permanent snow.

Coniferous forests grow over a large area of the northern mountains between 1,000 m and 4,000 m.

They are mostly evergreen with soft wood. The trees are tall and conical with thick, leathery, needle-shaped leaves and sloping branches so snow does not collect on them. Main species: oak, walnut, deodar, chestnut, fir, spruce and blue pine.

They provide timber for industries and crafts, conserve soil, check floods, prevent landslides, give habitat for wildlife and attract tourists.

Tropical thorn forests (Rakh) grow over vast areas from sea level to 1,000 m in the Punjab and Sindh plains and southern and western Baluchistan.

Because of high temperature and low rainfall the trees have broad leaves and hard wood and are deciduous, shedding leaves in the dry season. Common trees are kikar, acacia, pulahi and wild olives, of low height, with many xerophytic shrubs.

They are used for fuel wood, grazing and watershed protection.

Mangroves grow on the tidal flats of the Indus and Hub delta where fresh river water mixes with salty sea water; they are called floating forests.

• Knobbly "knee roots" stick out above the salty mud to take in oxygen for respiration.
• Leaves have a leathery texture to reduce transpiration and drip tips.
• Roots spread in salty water; trees are 3 to 8 m tall and need plenty of river silt.

Mangroves of the Indus delta are declining because of several threats:

• Dams and irrigation on the Indus have reduced fresh water and silt reaching the delta, which is shrinking.
• Urbanisation: expansion of seaports and tourist attractions on beaches.
• Pollution: oil spills from ships and dumping of domestic and industrial waste in the sea.
• Cutting for fuel and wood by coastal communities.

LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is a method of measuring distance by aiming a laser at a surface and timing how long the reflected light takes to return.

In forests it estimates the three-dimensional structure of vegetation and measures the height and density of vegetation over large areas. It detects forest fires, captures forest structure and maps individual trees, creating 3D models with centimetre-level accuracy, which also helps utility companies plan tree trimming.

Afforestation is planting trees on barren land where there was no forest, to create a new forest; re-afforestation replants areas that were cut. Example: Changa Manga (1866), Billion Tree Tsunami.

Deforestation is the large-scale cutting and removal of forests for timber, fuel, agriculture, grazing or building.

Afforestation increases tree cover, stops erosion and floods and absorbs carbon dioxide; deforestation causes soil erosion, floods, climate change and loss of biodiversity.

Irrigated forests are man-made forests watered by canals. Examples from the book: Changa Manga near Lahore (1866), forests near Sukkur Barrage and Kotri Barrage, Wanbachran in Thal and Chichawatni in Sahiwal.

Changa Manga was planted to provide wood for the railways and recreation for nearby people. The others were planted near canals and barrages to protect land from waterlogging and soil erosion; the Rachna Doab project reclaims land from waterlogging and salinity.

People cut trees for fuel where natural gas and other energy are not available. The book suggests:

• Extend gas pipelines and provide more gas cylinders as an alternative fuel.
• Use renewable energy (solar, wind, hydroelectricity) and save electricity.
• Use substitutes for wood such as synthetic wood, chipboard, cardboard, plastics and synthetic rubber.
• Run awareness programmes and plant fast-growing trees for fuel.

Introduction

Pakistan's forests change with altitude from the Arabian Sea to the northern mountains. The natural (productive) forests are alpine, coniferous, tropical thorn, sub-tropical scrub and mangrove forests; natural forest cover is only about 5%.

1. Alpine forests

Below the snow line in the Himalayas, Hindukush and Karakoram at 4,000 to 4,500 m (northern areas, Chitral, Dir, Kohistan). Conical, stunted, evergreen soft-wood trees such as deodar and kail; mostly used as firewood.

2. Coniferous forests

Northern mountains between 1,000 and 4,000 m (Murree, Abbottabad, Mansehra, Swat, Shangla, Quetta and Kalat). Tall, conical, evergreen, needle-leaved soft-wood trees: oak, walnut, deodar, chestnut, fir, spruce and blue pine. Give timber, conserve soil, check floods and landslides and attract tourists.

3. Tropical thorn forests (Rakh)

Sea level to 1,000 m in the Punjab and Sindh plains and southern and western Baluchistan. Deciduous, hard-wood, broad-leaved trees such as kikar, acacia, pulahi and wild olive, with xerophytic shrubs; used for fuel wood, grazing and watershed protection.

4. Sub-tropical scrub forests

Dry hill slopes of the western mountains, Quetta and Kalat, and the foothills of the lower Himalayas, Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. Short, broad-leafed trees and thorny bushes with pine nut, blackberry and poplar.

5. Riverain (bela) forests

Along the Indus and its tributaries, watered by the rivers.

6. Mangroves

Tidal flats of the Indus and Hub delta in Sindh and Baluchistan; 3 to 8 m tall, Avicennia Alba and Rhizophora, knee roots and leathery leaves; floating forests that protect the coast, breed fish and shrimp and store carbon.

Conclusion

Each forest type suits its altitude, rainfall and temperature. Together they give timber, fuel, fodder, tourism and environmental protection, but they cover too small an area and must be conserved.

Introduction

Pakistan has a semi-arid climate with low rainfall and high temperature, so land under natural forest is very small. Irrigated plantations are man-made forests in canal-irrigated tracts, such as Changa Manga (1866), Chichawatni and the forests near Sukkur and Kotri barrages. They are a form of protective forest.

Advantages

• Protect land from soil erosion and give shade along roads.
• Absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, improving the environment and helping against climate change.
• Leaves provide fodder; fallen leaves add fertility to the soil.
• Fruit trees give commercial income; plantations supply firewood, crafts and basketry.
• Act as windbreaks that protect crops from strong winds and heavy rain.
• Eucalyptus absorbs sub-soil water and controls waterlogging and salinity (Rachna Doab).
• Parks and plantations support recreation and tourism and give employment.

Disadvantages

• Need a large area for a long time before trees mature and give income.
• Threat of damage from storms, diseases and illegal cutting.
• Land cannot be used for other purposes with quicker returns.
• Require money for maintenance and care.
• Put an extra burden on limited water supplies, a serious issue in a water-short country.
• People feel less need to invest because the government provides parks.

Sustainability evaluation

Irrigated plantations are sustainable when they use surplus or saline water, reclaim waterlogged land and are replanted after cutting. They become unsustainable if they use scarce irrigation water needed for crops or if saplings are not cared for.

Conclusion

On balance, irrigated plantations are essential for Pakistan to raise its tree cover and protect land, provided that water is used carefully and plantations are properly managed.