Land of Pakistan and environmental hazards

This is a map skill question. On the outline map of Pakistan, mark each item as follows (check your positions against the grid of latitude and longitude printed on the map):

• River Ravi: an eastern tributary of the Indus. It enters Pakistan from India in the north-east of Punjab, flows past the north and west of Lahore, then south-west to join the Chenab (west of Kamalia, north of Multan). Draw it as a line from the Indian border near Lahore towards the south-west and label it.
• City of Lahore: mark a dot at about $31.5^{\circ }$ N, $74.3^{\circ }$ E, in north-east Punjab close to the Indian border (Wagah), on the east bank of the Ravi. Label it and underline it as the provincial capital.
• Afghanistan: write the name in the space to the west and north-west of Pakistan, beyond Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and northern Baluchistan. The boundary between them is the Durand Line (2,252 km); you may shade or thicken it.
• **Latitude $30^{\circ }$ N:** draw a horizontal line across the map at $30^{\circ }$ N. It passes just south of Quetta ($30.2^{\circ }$ N) and Multan ($30.2^{\circ }$ N), through northern Baluchistan and southern Punjab.
• **Longitude $64^{\circ }$ E:** draw a vertical line at $64^{\circ }$ E. It runs through western Baluchistan, near Panjgur, reaching the Makran coast between Gwadar and Pasni.

China lies to the north-east of Pakistan with a 600 km boundary through the Karakoram Mountains. Afghanistan is to the north-west, Iran to the west and India to the east.

The book text gives the India-Pakistan boundary as about 2,912 km. Option C ("29021 km") is a misprint of 2,912 km, so C is the intended answer.

2,192 km (D) is a trap: the digits are swapped. 2,252 km is the Afghanistan border.

The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), from Kashgar to Gwadar, is Pakistan's part of China's Belt and Road Initiative. SAARC, OIC and ECO are regional or Muslim organizations.

The Durand Line is the 2,252 km boundary between Pakistan and Afghanistan, demarcated in 1893 by the Afghan and British governments.

Global warming is the gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth, caused by greenhouse gases. It is defined by rising temperature, not by rainfall, dust or snowfall.

On 31 May 1935 an earthquake of magnitude 7.7 destroyed Quetta and about 70,000 people died.

Low rain (drought) dries the land, causes sand and dust storms and spreads desertification. Heavy rain and snow add water, so they do not cause deserts. Wind storms only move sand once the land is already dry.

A tsunami is a series of huge sea waves caused by an earthquake or volcanic eruption under the sea, so of the options it is a sea storm.

The summer monsoon winds bring heavy rainfall to many parts of Pakistan in July and August, which can also cause floods.

The Murree snowstorm struck on 7 January 2022; 22 tourists died when they were trapped in their cars.

Geopolitics is the study of how geography affects politics and international relations. Pakistan's central location in South Asia gives it great strategic importance.

• It lies close to two world powers, China and Russia, in the north, and links South Asia with Central Asia.
• It has a 2,912 km boundary with India, so its security matters for the whole region.
• Afghanistan in the west, after a long conflict, depends on Pakistan's support and its ports.
• Its warm water ports (Karachi, Bin Qasim, Gwadar) are near the Gulf and the oil routes.

Because of this position Pakistan joined the UN, SEATO (1954), helped form the OIC (1969), founded RCD/ECO, and is a member of SAARC; its friendship with China led to CPEC.

Gilgit-Baltistan, formerly the Northern Areas, is the northernmost region administered by Pakistan and a major attraction for national and international tourists.

• It has five of the world's peaks above 8,000 m, including K2, and about fifty peaks above 7,000 m, so Gilgit and Skardu are centres for mountaineering expeditions.
• Some of the world's largest glaciers, Siachen, Baltoro and Batura, are here, along with scenic valleys such as Hunza.
• The visitor season is from May to mid-October; polo and skiing are popular, and the Karakoram Highway gives access from China and the south.

Tourism provides jobs as hotel staff and guides and brings income to this sparsely populated mountain region.

The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) was agreed on 20 April 2015 as a $46 billion project from Kashgar in western China to Gwadar port. It is important for Pakistan because:

• It builds roads, railways and energy projects, improving infrastructure for trade with China.
• It brings foreign investment and jobs, improving the lives of the people of both countries.
• It develops Gwadar port and links Pakistan with the Middle East, Central Asia and Central and Eastern Europe as part of the Belt and Road Initiative.
• It strengthens Pak-China friendship and integrates South Asian countries through trade.

An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the ground caused by the shifting of the earth's plates.

• Meeting of three plates: Pakistan lies where the Indian, Eurasian and Arabian plates meet. Plate boundaries are the areas most likely to have earthquakes.
• Plate movement and upthrust: the Indian plate pushes north into the Eurasian plate; sudden movement or upthrust releases energy. The 2005 Kashmir earthquake (7.6) was caused by severe upthrust of the plates.
• Active zones: the northern mountains, the Quetta region and the Makran coast lie on active faults, so Pakistan is one of the most active earthquake risk areas of Asia.

Examples: Quetta 1935 (7.7), Kashmir 2005 (7.6), Awaran 2013 (7.7).

The greenhouse effect is the natural process that keeps the Earth warm by trapping the sun's heat in the atmosphere, like the glass of a greenhouse.

Sunlight passes through the atmosphere and warms the Earth's surface. The warm surface gives off heat (infrared radiation). Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and CFCs absorb this heat and re-emit part of it back towards the Earth, so the surface stays warm.

Without it the Earth would be about -20 °C (book value). But burning fossil fuels adds more greenhouse gases, which trap more heat and cause global warming.

Floods occur when rivers receive more water than they can carry and water spreads over low-lying land. The main causes in Pakistan are:

• Heavy monsoon rain in July and August, and unpredictable rain from the tail end of the monsoon and western depressions.
• Melting of glaciers and snow in the northern mountains in summer, which adds water and silt to the rivers.
• Deforestation, which increases soil erosion and fast run-off, filling rivers with silt beyond their capacity.
• Climate change, which now brings flash floods even to Baluchistan.

Example: the flash floods of 22 July 2010 in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Baluchistan killed 1,000 people.

Introduction

Pakistan lies in South Asia between latitudes 24.35° N and 37.05° N and longitudes 61° E and 78° E, with an area of 796,096 km². It borders India (about 2,912 km), Afghanistan (2,252 km, the Durand Line), Iran (909 km) and China (600 km), and has a 1,046 km coastline on the Arabian Sea. This location makes it a bridge between South Asia and Central Asia and gives it strategic value for every neighbour.

1. China

The Khunjerab Pass and the 1,300 km Karakoram Highway link Kashgar with Hasan Abdal. Through CPEC (2015) from Kashgar to Gwadar, western China gets the shortest route to the Arabian Sea, the Middle East and Africa, part of the Belt and Road Initiative. Pakistan supported China's UN seat (1971), and the friendship is strategic for both.

2. Afghanistan and the Central Asian states

These countries are landlocked. Pakistan's warm water ports of Karachi, Bin Qasim and Gwadar handle their transit trade: goods are stored and re-exported. The Khyber Pass links Pakistan with Afghanistan and Central Asia. Afghanistan, after a long conflict and a new government, needs Pakistan to be supportive and cooperative.

3. Iran and Turkey

The RCD highway links Pakistan with Iran and Turkey. The three countries founded RCD in 1964, which became ECO (1985, headquarters Tehran) for the welfare of member states.

4. India

The long boundary and the Wagah road link mean that trade and peace in South Asia depend on Pakistan-India relations. Pakistan's proximity to India also creates security concerns, so Pakistan's stability is vital for the region. Both are members of SAARC (1985).

5. Sea routes and the Gulf

Pakistan's ports lie near the Gulf and connect with the North Atlantic trade route (Europe, NE USA) and the Asia Pacific route (Korea, Malaysia, Australia). Neighbours can use these ports to reach world markets.

6. Russia and the Muslim world

Its closeness to Russia and China in the north, and its role in the OIC (1969, Jeddah), make Pakistan an important partner in regional diplomacy and energy and transit projects.

Effect on Pakistan's development

This position brings transit income, foreign investment (CPEC), jobs and road and port infrastructure (economic); influence in the UN, OIC, ECO and SAARC (political); and cultural links and tourism (social). It also demands careful diplomacy because of the security situation on the eastern and western borders.

Conclusion

Pakistan's location makes it the gateway of China and Central Asia to the sea and a bridge between South, Central and West Asia. Good relations with all neighbours turn this location into economic and political strength.

Introduction

Gwadar is a warm water, deep sea port on the Makran coast of Baluchistan, on the Arabian Sea near the mouth of the Gulf. It is the southern end of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which runs from Kashgar in China to Gwadar (agreement of 20 April 2015). Unit 4 of the book calls it "an important upcoming international sea port on the Baluchistan coast".

1. Transit trade

Along with Karachi and Bin Qasim, Gwadar provides transit trade services to landlocked Afghanistan and the Central Asian States. Goods are stored and re-exported, earning fees and creating jobs in Baluchistan.

2. Gateway for China

Gwadar gives western China the shortest route to the Arabian Sea, the Middle East and Africa. Investment under CPEC brings roads, power projects and industry to Baluchistan, which was the least developed province.

3. Infrastructure

Roads linking Gwadar with the rest of the country and the motorway network, an airport and electricity projects connect remote districts to markets.

4. Employment and industry

Port work, transport, construction, warehousing and new industrial zones give jobs to local people, who otherwise depend on nomadic livestock farming, mining and fishing.

5. Fishing and exports

Gwadar, with Pasni and Ormara, supports fishing. Better harbour facilities, ice factories and processing help fishermen export fish to the Middle East.

6. Minerals and energy

Baluchistan has gold, copper, lead, sulphur, coal, natural gas, oil and manganese. A nearby port makes it cheaper to export minerals and import machinery.

7. Social development

Income from the port can improve education, health, water supply and tourism along the coast, reducing the gap between Baluchistan and other provinces.

Challenges

Shortage of fresh water, low literacy and skills among local people, and security concerns must be solved so that benefits reach the local population.

Conclusion

Gwadar can turn Baluchistan's location and resources into economic progress through trade, jobs and infrastructure. Its success depends on including local people, providing water and skills, and completing CPEC projects.

Introduction

Pakistan stretches 1,600 km from the Arabian Sea in the south to the Karakoram Mountains in the north. This geography gives it sea coasts, fertile plains, deserts and the highest mountains of the world, so it offers many kinds of tourism. The book calls tourism an important and growing industry.

1. Northern mountains: adventure tourism

The Karakoram (with K2, the second highest peak), the Himalayas and the Hindukush rise from 1,000 to 8,000 m. Gilgit-Baltistan has five peaks above 8,000 m and about fifty above 7,000 m, and huge glaciers (Siachen, Baltoro, Batura). Mountaineers, climbers, trekkers and campers come to Gilgit and Skardu.

2. Valleys and hill stations

Valleys such as Chitral, Swat, Kaghan, Naran and Hunza have snow-capped peaks, fruit orchards, unique flora and fauna, and cultures with dances, music, polo, skiing and trout fishing. Murree, Ziarat and Muzaffarabad (Pir Chinasi) are popular hill resorts.

3. River plains: ancient civilizations

The fertile Indus plain was home to the Indus Valley Civilization at Mohenjo-Daro (Larkana) and Harappa (25 km north of Sahiwal). Taxila represents the Gandhara-Buddhist civilization.

4. Historic cities

Muslim rule of over 650 years left the Badshahi Mosque, Shalimar Gardens, Jahangir's Tomb, Lahore Fort and Minar-e-Pakistan in Lahore and the Mahabat Khan Mosque in Peshawar. Islamabad has the Faisal Mosque and Margalla hills; Quetta has Hanna Lake and the Ziarat Residency.

5. Coast

The 1,046 km coastline gives beaches such as Clifton in Karachi, and the port cities attract domestic and foreign tourists.

6. Location and access

Pakistan's position between China, Central Asia, Iran and India, with the Karakoram Highway, Khyber Pass, RCD highway and international airports, makes it easy for foreign tourists to reach.

Benefits

Tourism brings foreign exchange, jobs (hotel staff, guides, transport), infrastructure, cultural links and awareness of education and health, reducing the gap between rich and poor. The Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation provides boarding, lodging, guides and transport and advertises through websites.

Conclusion

Because its geography ranges from sea level to 8,000 m, Pakistan can offer adventure, cultural, religious and beach tourism in one country. With security, better roads and publicity this potential can become a major source of income.

Introduction

Pakistan faces earthquakes (Quetta 1935, Kashmir 2005), floods (2010), cyclones, droughts and snowstorms (Murree 2022). The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is the federal body that plans for and coordinates the response to such disasters.

1. Risk assessment and early warning

NDMA carries out hazard vulnerability and risk assessments (HVRAs) and improves risk anticipation through weather monitoring posts and early warning systems, working with the Pakistan Meteorological Department.

2. Coordination of emergency response

In a national-level disaster NDMA coordinates the federal government's emergency response through the National Emergency Operation Centre (NEOC). It can require any government department or agency to provide men and resources for response, rescue and relief.

3. Policies and plans

NDMA formulates and enforces national disaster policies at federal and provincial levels. It gives technical help to provincial governments and provincial authorities in preparing their disaster management plans according to the guidelines of the National Commission.

4. Disaster risk reduction

It develops and implements multi-sector disaster risk reduction frameworks and designs policies to reduce existing risks, prevent new ones and manage remaining risks, building long-term resilience.

5. Education, training and awareness

NDMA promotes education, training and public awareness among officials and communities so that disasters can be avoided and communities become resilient.

6. Capacity building

It aims at sustainable operational capacity and professional competence to carry out humanitarian operations at full capacity, through mitigation networks and disaster relief networks.

7. Disaster management cycle

NDMA works across the whole cycle: disaster, response, recovery, preparedness and mitigation, so that each disaster leads to better preparation for the next.

Evaluation and suggestions

NDMA has improved coordination and relief since 2010, but remote areas still get late warnings and help. Improvements: more weather radars and early warning in villages, local disaster units and volunteers, regular drills in schools, strict building codes in earthquake zones, stocks of relief goods in every district and quick release of funds.

Conclusion

NDMA is the backbone of disaster management in Pakistan. With stronger local capacity and public awareness it can greatly reduce the loss of life and property.

Introduction

A flood occurs when rivers overflow and water covers normally dry land. In Pakistan floods are caused by heavy monsoon rain, melting glaciers, deforestation and climate change. For example, flash floods on 22 July 2010 hit Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Baluchistan, sweeping away roads and bridges, killing 1,000 people and displacing 100,000.

Effects on human life

• Loss of life and displacement: people drown or are made homeless (2010 example).
• Destruction of infrastructure: roads, bridges, houses and schools are washed away, cutting off villages.
• Damage to agriculture: standing crops are destroyed and livestock drown, causing food shortage and poverty.
• Diseases: stagnant and polluted water spreads cholera, diarrhoea, malaria and skin diseases.
• Economic loss: trade and transport stop; the government spends heavily on relief and rebuilding.

Effects on the environment

• Soil erosion: fast-flowing water removes fertile topsoil; in the north it causes landslides and avalanches.
• Silting: silt is deposited in reservoirs, riverbeds and canals, reducing dam storage and hydroelectricity (load shedding).
• Water pollution: sewage, chemicals and pesticides mix with flood water and ground water.
• Damage to forests and wildlife habitats; river banks are washed away.

Positive effects

Floods also bring fresh fertile silt to the flood plains, recharge ground water and fill reservoirs and wetlands, which helps farming and fish breeding in the following season.

Measures

Forecasting and warning systems, embankments and levees, tree planting along river banks, storage dams (Rawal, Khanpur, Kurram Garhi), inundation canals, dredging of canals and the Water Accord of 1991 monitored by IRSA help reduce flood damage.

Conclusion

Floods cause great loss of life and damage to the environment in Pakistan, and climate change is making them more frequent. Planning, forestation and storage of flood water can turn part of this hazard into a resource.

Introduction

Climate change means long-term change in temperature and rainfall patterns. Pakistan is highly vulnerable: its climate change is seen in untimely rains, flash floods, thunderstorms, droughts and extreme events. Both natural and human factors are responsible.

Natural factors

• Location and rain systems: Pakistan lies north of the Tropic of Cancer and gets only the tail end of the summer monsoon and winter western depressions, so rainfall is unpredictable.
• Continental, semi-arid climate: extreme temperatures in summer and winter; areas like Thal, Cholistan, Kharan, Thar and Nara get less than 250 mm rain.
• Glaciers and high mountains: rising temperature melts glaciers, adding water and silt to rivers.
• Tectonic activity and volcanoes: earthquakes (Quetta 1935, Kashmir 2005) and volcanic ash affect the environment.
• Jet stream and ocean temperature: changes in them cause droughts and cyclones (Shaheen, which curved towards Oman).

Human factors

• Burning fossil fuels: coal, oil and gas in transport, industry and thermal power release carbon dioxide; carbon dioxide and particulates have risen over 50 years.
• Industrial development: factory smoke; winter smog in Lahore closes the Motorway and causes asthma.
• Agriculture: fertilizers and insecticides produce carbon dioxide and methane; irrigation causes waterlogging and salinity.
• Deforestation and overgrazing: reduce forest cover, cause soil erosion and floods.
• Overpopulation and urbanisation: more vehicles, high-rise buildings and waste; world population rose from 3.996 billion (1974) to about 8 billion (2024).
• Air and water pollution: WHO (2004) ranked Karachi, Peshawar, Lahore and Rawalpindi among the most polluted cities.

Examples of climate change in Pakistan

• Floods of 22 July 2010 (1,000 killed); flash floods now even in Baluchistan.
• Murree snowstorm of 7 January 2022 (22 tourists died at -8 °C).
• Heatwaves, droughts and desertification forcing migration.

Conclusion

Pakistan contributes little to world emissions but suffers greatly from climate change. Using renewable energy, planting trees, controlling pollution and strengthening PMD and NDMA are needed to adapt.

Pakistan is in Southern Asia, north of the Tropic of Cancer ($23.5^{\circ }$ N). It extends from latitude 24.35° N to 37.05° N and from longitude 61° E to 78° E, east of the Prime Meridian.

It stretches 1,600 km from south to north and about 885 km from west to east, with a total area of 796,096 km².

It has a coastline of 1,046 km on the Arabian Sea in the south and land borders with Iran, Afghanistan, China and India on the other three sides.

The Durand Line is the 2,252 km boundary between Pakistan and Afghanistan in the north-west. It was demarcated in 1893 by mutual agreement of the Afghan and British governments.

Other boundaries: India about 2,912 km (east), Iran 909 km (west), China 600 km (north-east, through the Karakoram), and a 1,046 km coastline on the Arabian Sea.

A narrow strip of about 20 km, the Wakhan Border, separates Pakistan from Tajikistan.

The Karakoram Highway (KKH) connects Pakistan with China through the Khunjerab Pass. It is 1,300 km long, with 887 km in Pakistan and 413 km in China, linking Kashgar (Xinjiang) with Hasan Abdal (Punjab).

It was completed in 1979 and opened to the public in 1986, built on the traces of the ancient Silk Road.

It promotes trade, cultural links and tourism in the northern areas, and it is a key land route of CPEC.

Pakistan's warm water ports of Karachi, Bin Qasim and Gwadar are linked to two major sea routes:

• North Atlantic trade route (west): connects NE USA and NW Europe; one of the busiest routes, carrying more than one fourth of world trade (petroleum products, chemicals, machinery, electronics). Pakistan trades with the European Union and NE USA through it.
• Asia Pacific trade route (east): connects countries on the Pacific shores such as Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Australia and Hong Kong, which are new markets for Pakistan's agricultural products and raw materials.

ECO (Economic Cooperation Organization): Iran, Turkey and Pakistan founded RCD in 1964; it became ECO in 1985 with headquarters in Tehran. Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan joined for the welfare of all members.

SAARC, established in 1985 with headquarters in Kathmandu, has eight members: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Afghanistan and Nepal. Its aim is to improve the quality of life of South Asians through economic growth, social progress and cultural development; Pakistan has hosted many SAARC meetings.

Pakistan lies where three tectonic plates meet: the Indian, Eurasian and Arabian plates. Areas near plate boundaries are most likely to have earthquakes, and the slow push of the Indian plate builds up stress that is released suddenly.

Examples: the Quetta earthquake of 31 May 1935 (7.7) killed about 70,000 people and destroyed the city; the Kashmir earthquake of 8 October 2005 (7.6) killed over 100,000 and left 3.5 million homeless.

Smog is a combination of fog and smoke. It forms in winter when smoke from factories, vehicles and burning mixes with fog near the ground.

Lahore has faced a great smog problem in winter for many years because of industrial smoke and traffic. Smog reduces visibility, so the Motorway often has to be closed. It is also a serious health hazard, causing allergies, asthma and chest diseases.

Tropical cyclones are non-frontal, synoptic scale storms that develop over tropical and subtropical seas with an organised circulation of winds.

They form in the Arabian Sea and reach Pakistan with onshore monsoon winds in summer, mostly hitting the Sindh coast rather than the Baluchistan coast. They cause coastal flooding, damaging winds and heavy rainfall. Cyclone Shaheen curved away from Sindh towards Oman. Pakistan has only one cyclone warning centre, in Karachi.

The disaster management cycle shows the continuous stages of dealing with disasters:

• Disaster: the hazard strikes.
• Response: rescue, relief, medical care and shelter.
• Recovery: rebuilding homes, roads and livelihoods.
• Preparedness: plans, training, drills, early warning.
• Mitigation: long-term steps such as dams, embankments and building codes to reduce future damage.

NDMA uses this cycle so that each disaster leads to better preparation for the next one.

The Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) is the government department that provides weather and climate information.

It measures weather variables (wind, temperature, humidity, pressure, cloud and precipitation) and prepares weather forecasts using global and regional data, numerical models and data assimilation.

Its forecasts and warnings of heavy rain, floods, cyclones and heatwaves help NDMA, farmers and the public prepare, and are used to plan field work.

Introduction

Pakistan has a federal capital, four provincial capitals and the capitals of Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir. Each city's location shapes its economy.

Islamabad

Planned capital at the northern edge of the Potohar plateau below the Margalla hills (540 m). Seat of Parliament, Supreme Court and ministries; divided into administrative, diplomatic, residential, commercial and green zones; Faisal Mosque and Margalla National Park.

Lahore

Capital of Punjab on the east bank of the Ravi in the upper Indus plain. Industrial and service hub (textiles, engineering, chemicals), fertile farmland (wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton), Punjab University, historic Mughal buildings and Minar-e-Pakistan; Metro Bus and Orange-line train; Allama Iqbal airport.

Karachi

Capital of Sindh and most populous city on the Arabian Sea with two ports (Karachi and Bin Qasim). Largest commercial and industrial centre: iron and steel, textiles, chemicals, automobiles; Jinnah International Airport; "City of Lights".

Peshawar

Capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa near the Khyber Pass. Agro- and mineral-based economy (sugarcane, maize, tobacco; marble), leather shoes, garments, ghee, matchboxes; Islamia College and Mohabat Khan Masjid.

Quetta

Capital of Baluchistan at 1,680 m, linked by the Bolan and Khojak passes. Fruit market, handicrafts (Baluchi carpets, embroidery), Hanna Lake, Ziarat Residency, Geological Survey of Pakistan and seismic centre.

Gilgit and Muzaffarabad

Gilgit, at the Gilgit-Hunza confluence, is a centre for mountaineering near K2 and great glaciers. Muzaffarabad, at the Jhelum-Neelum confluence, lives on services, farming and handicrafts such as walnut wood carving and Kashmiri shawls.

Conclusion

Coastal Karachi is the trade gateway, the plains cities are industrial and agricultural centres, and the mountain cities depend on minerals, handicrafts and tourism. Together they reflect Pakistan's varied geography.

Definition

Global warming is the gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth, caused by greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and CFCs. The average global temperature has risen about 0.8 °C since 1880; in 2013 the IPCC reported an average of 14.6 °C, 0.6 °C above the mid 20th century.

Natural causes

• Volcanic ash, cinder and smoke that stay in the atmosphere.
• Forest fires in hot, dry conditions (Canada 2023: 18.496 million hectares burnt).

Human causes

• Burning coal, oil and gas for transport, industry and power releases carbon dioxide.
• Chemical fertilizers and insecticides release carbon dioxide and methane.
• Deforestation and overgrazing.
• Industrial smoke and overpopulation (8 billion people in 2024).

Effects in Pakistan

• Untimely and heavy rain, flash floods (2010) and thunderstorms.
• Melting glaciers and more floods, avalanches and landslides in the north.
• Drought, dust storms and desertification in Thal, Cholistan, Kharan and Thar; people migrate.
• Heatwaves and heat-related illnesses (2020 one of the hottest years).
• Extreme events such as the Murree snowstorm of 2022.
• Less fresh water, changes in agriculture and loss of biodiversity.

Remedies

Use renewable energy, plant trees, control industrial and vehicle emissions, and improve forecasting and disaster preparedness through PMD and NDMA.

Conclusion

Global warming is already changing Pakistan's weather. Cutting greenhouse gases and adapting to extreme events are both necessary.

Introduction

Climate change is caused mainly by greenhouse gases from fossil fuels, deforestation and pollution. Reducing its impacts needs both mitigation (cutting emissions) and adaptation (preparing for hazards). Government and society share this responsibility.

Role of government

• Shift power generation from coal, oil and gas to renewable energy (solar, wind, hydroelectricity).
• Control factory and vehicle smoke by law; improve public transport (Metro, BRT) to reduce smog.
• Build storage dams and embankments; implement the Water Accord 1991 through IRSA.
• Strengthen PMD forecasting and NDMA early warning, planning and relief.
• Run tree plantation campaigns (spring and monsoon) and protect forests and mangroves.
• Make and enforce laws on water pollution, sewage treatment and waste disposal.

Role of society

• Save electricity and fuel; use public transport and efficient vehicles.
• Plant and care for trees; avoid cutting wood for fuel.
• Use limited fertilizers and pesticides and biodegradable detergents.
• Do not throw plastic and waste into drains, rivers and beaches; recycle and reuse.
• Follow disaster warnings and take part in awareness campaigns such as "Save Pakistan".

Conclusion

Government must provide policy, laws and infrastructure, while every citizen must change daily habits. Only together can Pakistan reduce the harm of global warming.