2026 paper questions

Limestone is the main raw material of cement (gypsum is added in small amounts). The book lists cement production as the first use of limestone and says cement plants are located near limestone and gypsum deposits.

In Pakistan's ideology democracy works within the limits of Islam: sovereignty belongs to Allah and the people's representatives use it as a trust. It is neither secular nor a theocracy of religious scholars.

Sir Syed believed opposing the British was pointless and advised Muslims to acquire modern scientific education and learn English. He opposed joining Congress.

Saudi investment (such as the $14 billion Gwadar oil refinery) and UAE investment in refineries and infrastructure create jobs, energy and growth, and stability supports peace. So they support the SDGs by addressing security and economic growth. The other options are too narrow.

After 9/11 Pakistan became a front-line ally in the War on Terror, and most US assistance was military and security help to battle terrorism (the book: "billions of dollars in economic and military help"). So defence received the largest share.

The book says Pakistan's 2,912 km unnatural boundary with India adds to its strategic importance; the long border and tense relations have mainly created security concerns. Trade and agricultural cooperation between the two have remained limited.

The book lists security concerns as a key determinant: relations with India are marked by historical conflicts, the Kashmir issue, wars (1965, 1971, 1999) and standoffs. Trade and cooperation have remained limited.

Most senior officers were Hindus who moved to India, so Pakistan had a shortage of trained and experienced officers.

The book says that because of the shortage of experienced officers, Quaid-i-Azam requested British officers to continue their services. So option B matches the book.

Setting up the central secretariat in Karachi was also part of the effort, so a marker may accept D; B is the answer supported by the textbook.

The World Health Organization strengthens health systems, controls disease outbreaks and ensures access to critical health services (for example polio eradication in Afghanistan). Education is UNESCO's field.

Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan moved the Objectives Resolution and got it passed by the Constituent Assembly in 1949.

Prime Minister Liaqat Ali Khan presented the Objectives Resolution in the Constituent Assembly; it was passed on 12 March 1949. Nazimuddin and Ch. Muhammad Ali were later Prime Ministers, and Junejo was Prime Minister in 1985.

Causes

• Tashkent Declaration (January 1966): it did not settle Kashmir; people believed Ayub lost a winning war at the table.
• Z.A. Bhutto's movement: Ayub's foreign minister resigned, said Tashkent was against Pakistan and led a movement against him; other parties joined in mass protests.
• 1965 presidential election: only 80,000 BD members voted and the campaign against Fatima Jinnah damaged his reputation; the restricted Basic Democracy system and ban on parties angered people.

Consequences

• Ayub resigned on 25 March 1969.
• Power went to General Yahya Khan, who imposed a second martial law.
• Yahya's rule led to the 1970 elections, the East Pakistan crisis and the separation of East Pakistan in 1971.

Tourism is a vital sector that boosts Pakistan's regional development and national economy. Two aspects:

1. Revenue generation (1.5)

The PTDC estimates that tourism brought almost $1 billion of income in 2019, and the WTTC puts travel and tourism at about 2.8% of GDP (roughly $7.9 billion). Income comes from accommodation, food and beverages, souvenirs and travel services. International visitor spending rose from PKR 273.6 billion (2019) to PKR 459.5 billion (2023), and the UNWTO named Pakistan the best performing destination in the first nine months of 2023.

2. Employment opportunities (1.5)

Tourism is a major source of jobs in hotels, travel, transport, handicrafts and as guides. The WTTC estimates about 3.8 million jobs in 2019, about 6.3% of all employment in Pakistan, were related to tourism. It also brings infrastructure and local development to areas such as Swat, Hunza and Gilgit-Baltistan.

Religious harmony means that followers of different religions and sects live together with respect and tolerance. In Pakistan, with a Muslim majority and Christian, Hindu, Sikh and other communities, it plays a key role in unity:

• Builds respect and reduces tension: dialogue among religious communities removes misunderstanding and prevents sectarian and religious violence, which otherwise divides the nation.
• Gives every citizen a stake in Pakistan: the constitutional freedom of religion and protection of minorities (Articles 21 and 36) make minorities loyal, active citizens, as Quaid-e-Azam wanted.
• Creates a peaceful environment for progress: steps such as the Kartarpur Corridor and interfaith events show goodwill, improve Pakistan's image and allow all communities to work together.

Evaluation: harmony has kept Pakistan's diverse communities together, but sectarianism and extremism still threaten it, so interfaith dialogue, responsible media and faith leaders, and education for tolerance must continue.

Fundamental rights are given in Articles 8 to 28 of the 1973 Constitution. Any three:

1. Security of person (Article 9): no person shall be deprived of life or liberty save in accordance with law; safeguards against illegal arrest and the right to a fair trial (Articles 10, 10-A).
2. Equality of citizens (Article 25): all citizens are equal before law and entitled to equal protection of law; there shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex.
3. Freedom of religion (Article 20): every citizen has the right to profess, practise and propagate his religion.
4. Right to education (Article 25-A): the state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children aged 5 to 16 years.

Others: freedom of movement (15), assembly (16), association (17), speech (19), right to information (19-A), property (23).

Child labour is work that deprives children of their childhood, dignity and potential. Under Article 3 of ILO Convention No. 182, the worst forms include:

1. Slavery and bonded or forced labour: sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and forced labour, for example children in brick kilns and carpet factories (like Iqbal Masih, sold into bonded labour at 4), and forced recruitment of children for armed conflict.
2. Use in prostitution and crime: offering a child for prostitution or for criminal activities such as drug trafficking.
3. Hazardous work: work likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children, such as work with dangerous machinery, heavy loads, harmful substances or long hours in factories, mines and workshops.

Any three of these points earn the three marks.

GIS (Geographic Information System) integrates hardware, software and data to capture, manage, analyse and display all forms of spatial data and satellite imagery. In forest management it:

• Maps forests: shows the types, distribution and density of forests, plantations and grasslands, and prepares 3D maps. In Pakistan GIS has detected 4.2 million hectares of planted forests, including 4.8% coniferous and scrub forests.
• Detects and prevents damage: with machine learning it detects forest destruction, even a single felling, and predicts forest fires.
• Plans for the future: models future forest conditions, plans harvests, and makes afforestation and re-afforestation planning easy and efficient.

Water pollution occurs when harmful substances, often chemicals or microorganisms, contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean or aquifer, making the water toxic for humans and the environment. Three main reasons are:

• Municipal waste: sewage and human waste (about two billion tons worldwide) are discharged into rivers and other water bodies without treatment.
• Industrial waste: factories, heavy industry and power plants release waste water and chemicals without treatment plants.
• Agricultural waste: fertilizers and pesticides seep through the ground with rain water and drain into rivers and ground water, harming fish and people.

Dumping of litter such as plastic and glass, and oil from automobiles, also pollute water.

Fossil fuels are coal, oil and natural gas. Burning them for transport, industry and power affects the environment in three main ways:

• Global warming: burning releases large amounts of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that traps heat in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and particulates have increased over the last 50 years, raising the Earth's temperature.
• Air pollution and health: smoke, fumes and soot pollute the air, causing respiratory infections, asthma and stroke. WHO (2004) ranked Karachi, Peshawar, Lahore and Rawalpindi among the most polluted cities; Lahore suffers winter smog.
• Climate change: warming causes untimely rain, flash floods, droughts, melting of glaciers, desertification and loss of biodiversity in Pakistan.

Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) are burnt for electricity, transport and industry. Their consumption affects the environment in these ways:

• Greenhouse gases and climate change: burning releases carbon dioxide, and gas extraction leaks methane; these trap heat and contribute to global warming and climate change.
• Air pollution: combustion of coal and oil releases smoke, dust and harmful gases that pollute the air and harm health.
• Water and land pollution: oil spills damage water bodies and marine life; coal mining contaminates water, degrades land and displaces communities.

At the micro level (individual and household), unemployment reduces consumer spending in these ways:

• Loss of household income: when the earner loses a job or is underemployed, income falls, so families cut spending and struggle to meet even basic needs such as food, clothing and rent.
• Spending only on necessities: families stop buying non-essential goods and cut spending on healthcare and education; children may leave school, and poverty and malnutrition increase.
• Uncertainty and debt: stress and fear about the future make people save or borrow instead of spend; lower spending by many households reduces demand in local markets and hurts shopkeepers and small businesses.

How minorities promote a culture of peace

• By active participation in the economy, education, healthcare, public service, arts and sports, they show that all communities work for one nation.
• By loyalty to the state and taking part in interfaith dialogue and community events, they build trust and reduce misunderstanding.
• Their schools, hospitals and welfare work serve people of all backgrounds, spreading goodwill.

Quaid-e-Azam's vision

Quaid-e-Azam envisioned a pluralistic Pakistan where minorities would have freedom of worship and protection of their religion, life, property and culture, and be equal citizens "without any distinction of caste, colour, religion or creed", with rights and also duties. He aimed at a culture of peace and harmony based on tolerance, justice, equality and human dignity, where conflicts are minimised and cooperation maximised.

• Improved breeding techniques: selective breeding of animals with desirable traits raises meat, milk and wool yields and disease resistance.
• Veterinary services: regular veterinary care, vaccination programmes and disease surveillance keep animals healthy, so they convert feed into milk and meat more efficiently.
• Feed and water management: locally available, sustainably sourced feed, crop residues and balanced rations, with water conservation (drip irrigation for fodder, rainwater harvesting), improve productivity and reduce waste.

Other valid strategies: rotational grazing, manure management, animal welfare, farmer education and research.

Deforestation is the process of frequent cutting of trees on a large scale for commercial use or fuel wood, that is, the removal and destruction of a forest for agriculture, grazing or manufacturing.

Reasons (any three):

• Wood-based industries: sports goods, furniture, wood crafts, chipboard, veneer and plywood need large amounts of lumber.
• Fuel wood: where natural gas and other energy resources are not available, local people cut trees for fuel.
• Land clearing: forests are removed for agriculture, tourism, industrial expansion, urban development and roads.
• Nomadic livestock farming: herders move with cattle and overgraze, leaving land barren.

• Direct employment: the industry gives direct jobs to about 390,000 fishermen, mostly in the coastal areas of Sindh and Balochistan along the 1,050 km coastline.
• Indirect employment: about 500,000 people work in ancillary activities such as boat building, net making and processing.
• Linked sectors and fish farming: marketing, transport, cold storage, fishing markets and exports (over 450 million US dollars in 2022-23) create more jobs, and fish farming creates jobs in rural areas. This offers livelihoods and reduces poverty in coastal communities.

A flood is an overflow of river water onto normally dry land. In Pakistan floods come from heavy monsoon rain, melting glaciers and deforestation. Environmental hazards caused by floods:

• Soil erosion and landslides: fast water removes fertile topsoil and washes away river banks; in the north it triggers landslides and avalanches.
• Silting of dams and canals: silt is deposited in reservoirs, riverbeds and canals, reducing water storage and hydroelectricity.
• Water pollution and disease: sewage, pesticides and chemicals mix with flood water, spreading cholera, diarrhoea and malaria.

Example: the floods of 22 July 2010 in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Baluchistan swept away roads and bridges, killed 1,000 people and displaced 100,000.

Meaning (1 mark)

Telecommunication is the transmission of information over long distances by electronic methods, which allows communication between people and devices. It includes telephones, fax machines, radios, televisions and the internet, which carry voice, data, text, pictures and video through wired or wireless networks.

Importance (2 marks)

• It connects people and businesses across great distances and gives real-time communication through calls, video conferencing and messaging.
• It promotes economic growth, the digital economy and innovation.
• It gives rapid communication in emergencies and disasters.
• It improves access to education, healthcare, commerce and government services, and has made the world a global village.

Individuals are essential for national cohesion, but the following constraints restrict their contribution (one mark per point):

Economic and social barriers

• 1. Financial difficulties: people struggling to meet basic needs have no time or money for civic duties or community activities.
• 2. Limited access to education: without education people lack the information and abilities to contribute to local development or national debate.

Social and cultural restraints

• 3. Discrimination: based on socioeconomic class, gender, race or religion, it marginalises people and keeps them out of national integration efforts.
• 4. Customs and traditions: these sometimes discourage people, particularly women and minorities, from actively participating.
• 5. Language disparities: with around 70 languages spoken, people of different linguistic backgrounds may find it hard to communicate and connect.

Institutional and political barriers

• 6. Lack of political representation: people who feel their opinions are not heard become disenfranchised and apathetic towards national unity.
• 7. Ineffective or dishonest individuals and institutions: by refusing to back measures for unity, they sabotage individual efforts.

Geography and infrastructure

• 8. Remote areas and inadequate infrastructure: residents of undeveloped or remote places find it hard to obtain resources and take part in national activities, and become isolated from the national framework.

Conclusion

These constraints are linked: poverty limits education, and lack of education and representation leads to apathy. They can be overcome by quality education for all (Article 25 A), economic empowerment, anti-discrimination laws, good governance and better infrastructure.

In recent years Pakistan's telecommunications industry has grown and changed greatly because of technological innovation, regulatory reforms and rising investment. Four major improvements are:

1. Increased investment

The sector has attracted significant foreign investment. International companies see Pakistan as a viable market because of its large population and growing demand for data. Collaboration between the government and the private sector has built essential infrastructure such as fibre optic networks and satellite communication systems.

2. Regulatory reforms, affordability and growth in users

New telecom policies foster innovation, competition and affordable access, and give operators incentives to improve services. As a result, users rose by 25 percent in five years to 192.3 million. Mobile services reach 90 percent of the population and 3G/4G signals cover over 80 percent. Pakistan has some of the lowest data rates in the world, so internet is available in every corner of the country.

3. Expansion of 4G and 5G services

Major operators have invested heavily in infrastructure, bringing broader and more reliable 4G and 5G services to urban and rural areas. Artificial intelligence is used to manage networks and personalise services, making them faster and more reliable.

4. Growth in e-commerce, digital services and education

Reliable internet and mobile payment options have made online shopping and digital transactions convenient. Digital platforms for education, healthcare and entertainment have grown. In education, broadband connects institutions, e-learning platforms and online degrees have spread, smart classrooms and virtual labs are used, and TV and radio lessons supported distance learning during COVID-19.

Conclusion

With 5G, fibre optics and satellite links, the sector will further support smart cities, IoT and rural connectivity, helping economic growth and a digitally inclusive society.

Pakistan joined the IMF on 11 July 1950 and took its first bailout in 1958. Since then it has taken IMF packages in almost every era, the latest being $3 billion (2023) and $7 billion (2024), to deal with fiscal deficits, inflation, balance of payments crises and heavy debt.

Positive impacts (4 marks)

1. Economic stabilization: IMF aid has stabilized the economy, restored market confidence and prevented a balance of payments catastrophe (default).
2. Reform implementation: IMF programmes led to significant reforms, especially in fiscal management and the energy sector.
3. Strengthening institutions: technical support and policy advice helped develop Pakistan's economic institutions and governance, and trained local officials (capacity building).
4. Financial support: loans provide resources that allow investment in infrastructure, health and education, and open the door to loans from other lenders.

Negative impacts (4 marks)

1. Austerity measures: conditions such as higher taxes and electricity and fuel prices cause inflation, social unrest and political problems.
2. Debt sustainability: continued borrowing raises Pakistan's external debt and its long-term burden.
3. Sovereignty concerns: Pakistan must follow externally imposed policies, seen as an erosion of national sovereignty.
4. Inequality and implementation risks: policies can hurt the poor more than the rich, and political instability and weak administration often stop reforms, so crises return.

Conclusion: IMF assistance saves Pakistan from default in the short run, but lasting benefit depends on implementing and sustaining reforms so that dependence can end.

Political factors (4 marks)

• Kashmir dispute: India refused to hold the plebiscite promised in the UN resolutions and kept Kashmir by force since 1947.
• Indian steps to integrate occupied Kashmir (May 1965): India arrested the Muslim leadership of Kashmir and moved to make the occupied state a part of India. This triggered a popular uprising, which India crushed with brutal oppression.
• Pakistan's support for Kashmiris: Pakistan could not remain silent on Indian brutality and sent volunteers into the valley to support the Kashmiris.
• Indian desire for revenge: after its humiliation in the Rann of Kutch, India was looking for a new adventure, and used Pakistan's support for Kashmiris as an excuse to attack.

Territorial factors (4 marks)

• Unsettled boundaries after partition: the Radcliffe Award and the Kashmir ceasefire line left disputed areas.
• Rann of Kutch (April 1965): India set up a military post in the disputed Rann of Kutch. Pakistan sent troops; in the fighting the Pakistan army surrounded Indian troops, but Ayub Khan agreed to a ceasefire. India felt insulted.
• Ceasefire line in Kashmir: clashes along the line and the uprising in the valley made it a flashpoint.
• Violation of the international border: on 6 September 1965 India crossed the international border towards Lahore and later Sialkot, turning a Kashmir conflict into a full war.

Conclusion

Political anger over Kashmir and territorial clashes in the Rann of Kutch and along the ceasefire line together produced the war. It ended with a UN ceasefire accepted on 22 September 1965 and the Tashkent Declaration (January 1966), under which troops went back to pre-war positions, but the root cause, Kashmir, stayed unresolved.

In the ideology of Pakistan (and the Objectives Resolution), sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to Allah alone; the people exercise authority as a sacred trust.

When the Hindus of Banaras started a movement in 1867 to replace Urdu with Hindi, Sir Syed concluded that Muslims are a separate nation.

Pakistan is a bridge between South Asia, Central Asia and West Asia, with warm water ports near the Gulf, the RCD highway to Iran and Turkey and routes north towards Central Asia and Russia. Its value comes from this strategic trade and transit route.

Pakistan lies at the junction of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East, with CPEC and the warm-water port of Gwadar. The book says Russia may reach the Arabian Sea through Gwadar. This strategic trade route is what raises its value.

After the 9/11 attacks in 2001, Pakistan joined the US War on Terror as a front-line ally. The Gulf War was in 1991, long before 9/11.

The Khunjerab Pass in the north links Pakistan with China through the Karakoram Highway. Khyber links with Afghanistan, Bolan links central Pakistan with Quetta, and Lowari is inside Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Dir to Chitral).

The Karakoram Highway connects Pakistan and China through the Khunjerab Pass (printed as Khnjerab). The Khyber Pass leads to Afghanistan, the Bolan Pass is in Balochistan and the Lowari Pass links Dir and Chitral.

About 6.5 million refugees arrived from India with nothing; their shelter, food and jobs were the most urgent problem. The other options are not challenges at all.

The inspiring leadership of Quaid-i-Azam and Liaquat Ali Khan (Refugee Fund, State Bank, guidance to officers) and the spirit of the people carried Pakistan through its early problems.

The United Nations Development Programme works for poverty reduction (SDG 1) through social safety nets, governance and economic opportunities. NATO is a military alliance, not a UN body.

In the 1956 and 1962 Constitutions it was only the Preamble. During General Zia ul Haq's rule it was made an operative (substantive) part of the 1973 Constitution as Article 2-A.

The book says chromite is found predominantly in Muslim Bagh, Khanozai and Wadh in Balochistan, with some reserves in Malakand and Mohmand (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa).

• Hudood Ordinance: punishments for theft, adultery, fornication and alcohol according to Islam. Critics say it was applied unfairly, especially against women and the poor.
• Federal Shariat Court (1980): to decide whether laws are Islamic. It gave Islam a legal role, but its powers were limited and many laws were not changed.
• Media and social measures: Islamic programmes on radio and TV, encouraging regular prayers, and appointing ulema as junior commissioned officers in the army.

Critical view: many critics argue that Zia was not serious about enforcing Islam and used it to legitimise and prolong his military rule, delaying elections that he had promised within ninety days.

Tourism brings visitor spending and investment directly into the areas that tourists visit, so it is a major income source for local communities:

• Local businesses: hotels, guest houses, restaurants, transport, and shops selling handicrafts, local cuisine and souvenirs earn from tourists. The book says tourism has brought economic uplift to Swat Valley, Hunza Valley and the coastal areas of Sindh and Balochistan.
• Jobs: local people work as guides, porters, drivers, cooks and artists; about 3.8 million jobs in Pakistan (2019) were related to tourism.
• Infrastructure: new roads, airports and hotels in Gilgit-Baltistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad Kashmir help local businesses and improve residents' quality of life.

Assessment: tourism reduces regional inequalities, but income is seasonal and depends on security and good infrastructure, and unmanaged growth (as in Murree and Galliat) can harm the environment that earns the income.

Political instability means frequent changes of government, power struggles and lack of consensus among leaders. It undermines national solidarity in these ways:

1. Weakens unity and causes polarisation (1.5)

Power struggles and lack of consensus among political leaders weaken national unity. When leaders take extreme positions, society is further polarised into hostile camps, and people identify more with a party, region or group than with the nation.

2. Erodes trust and creates a sense of injustice (1.5)

Instability goes with corruption, which erodes trust in government institutions and creates a sense of injustice, leading to social fragmentation. Government funds for marginalised communities often do not reach them, so those groups feel neglected and alienated from the state.

The 1973 Constitution contains more Islamic provisions than the earlier constitutions. Any three of these:

1. State religion: Islam is the official religion of Pakistan, and the country is named the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
2. Muslim head of state and government: the President and the Prime Minister must be practising Muslims.
3. Laws according to Islam: all laws shall be made according to the teachings of the Holy Quran and Sunnah; a Council of Islamic Ideology recommends how existing laws can be brought into conformity with Islam.
4. Definition of a Muslim: a Muslim is a person who believes in the oneness of Allah and in Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) as the last Prophet (2nd Amendment 1974).
5. Objectives Resolution: under Article 2-A it is a substantive part of the constitution.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 1948 and has 30 Articles. Three of them:

1. Article 1: all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights; no one is superior to another by birth.
2. Article 3: everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person, so no one may be killed, imprisoned or harmed arbitrarily.
3. Article 19: everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the freedom to hold opinions and share information and ideas.

Other acceptable articles: Article 4 (no slavery), Article 7 (equality before law), Article 18 (freedom of religion), Article 26 (right to education).

Biofuels (1 mark)

Biofuels are fuels derived from organic materials, such as plant and animal matter, and used as a renewable alternative to fossil fuels. Biogas is a common example in Pakistan.

Production (2 marks)

• They are made from biomass: agricultural waste (crop wastes of wheat, rice, sugarcane and maize), animal manure and other organic material.
• In a biogas plant, manure and crop waste are broken down in a closed tank without air (anaerobic digestion), which produces combustible gas for cooking, heating and electricity; the leftover slurry is used as organic fertilizer.
• In Pakistan this is done through projects such as the Pakistan Domestic Biogas Programme, the Punjab Biogas Pilot Project, the UAF biogas initiative, RSPN and PDDC.

Productive forests grow naturally without human activity; protective forests are planted by people or government schemes.

Examples: coniferous, alpine and thorn forests are productive; Changa Manga and roadside or canal plantations are protective, improving barren land.

Keeping water clean is the duty of every individual, not only of the government and NGOs. Three measures:

• Treat sewage and industrial waste: sewage must not be discharged directly into rivers; factories should have treatment plants.
• Limit agricultural chemicals: use limited fertilizers and pesticides and biodegradable detergents so that harmful chemicals do not seep into water.
• Proper disposal of solid waste: plastic should be recycled and reused, not thrown into water; domestic waste and chemical cleaners should not go down drains; trash cans should be used at beaches and parks.

Public awareness campaigns are needed so that people follow these measures.

Industrialization means the growth of factories and mass production. It increases climate change risks in three ways:

• Greenhouse gas emissions: factories and thermal power plants burn coal, oil and gas, releasing carbon dioxide that traps heat and causes global warming.
• Air pollution and smog: thick smoke from factories pollutes the air and raises air temperature; Lahore's winter smog is an example.
• Industrial waste and resource use: mass production creates industrial waste and water pollution, and increases demand for energy, raw materials and wood, which adds to deforestation.

Together these lead to rising temperatures, melting glaciers, floods and droughts.

• Greenhouse gas emissions: industries such as cement, steel and fertilizer are energy-intensive and burn fossil fuels, releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide; fertilizer use also releases greenhouse gases. These trap heat and cause global warming.
• Air pollution and resource depletion: factories release dust and pollutants and use up water, minerals and forests; loss of forests reduces the absorption of carbon dioxide.
• Urbanisation and energy demand: industrial growth brings cities, transport and higher electricity demand, mostly met by fossil fuels, which further increases emissions and the risk of climate change.

1. Basic knowledge and literacy

Education gives people the fundamental knowledge (reading, writing, numeracy, computer and communication skills) needed for many occupations. A literate worker can learn new technology and processes quickly, which makes him more productive and more attractive to employers.

2. Vocational and technical training

Skill-based and vocational education prepares people for the specific demands of the job market. When education targets the skills needed for future jobs, it closes the gap between workers' skills and available positions, reducing unemployment and underemployment. It also enables people to start their own businesses (entrepreneurship).

Quaid-e-Azam envisioned a state where religious freedom and equality were paramount and minorities had a crucial role in development.

• Freedom of worship: in July 1947 he said there would be no interference with minorities' freedom of worship, and their religion, faith, life, property and culture would be protected.
• Equal citizenship: all would be citizens "without any distinction of caste, colour, religion or creed", with rights, privileges and obligations.
• 11 August 1947 speech: "You are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan."
• Aim: a pluralistic society and a culture of peace based on justice, equality and human dignity.

Training programmes, extension services and farmer field schools teach farmers sustainable practices, resource management and animal health. Their importance:

• Better animal health: trained farmers vaccinate on time, recognise diseases early and use veterinary services, which reduces disease outbreaks and losses.
• Higher productivity: they learn improved breeding, balanced feeding and proper housing, which raises milk, meat and wool yields.
• Sustainability and income: they adopt eco-friendly techniques (rotational grazing, manure management, water conservation) and learn to reach markets for fair prices, improving their livelihoods.

Afforestation is planting trees on barren land to create new forests. It is important for climate because:

• Absorbs carbon dioxide: trees absorb carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, and release oxygen, which reduces global warming.
• Maintains rainfall and temperature: trees increase evapotranspiration, which helps bring timely rain and cools the surroundings; loss of trees causes untimely rains and drought.
• Reduces climate hazards: forests check soil erosion, floods and desertification, and urban forests (Miyawaki method) reduce pollution and heat in cities.

Example: the Billion Tree Tsunami reforested damaged areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

Gwadar Port is a deep-sea port in Balochistan and a strategic hub connecting Pakistan to the Middle East, Africa and Central Asia. It supports the fishing industry by:

• Modern export facility: it provides a modern and efficient facility to export fish and seafood, which has increased exports and foreign exchange earnings.
• Cold storage and processing under CPEC: related investment in cold storage, processing plants and transport improves the quality and safety of seafood and its global competitiveness.
• Connectivity and jobs: with the Makran Coastal Highway it links coastal fishing communities to markets, reduces transport time and losses, and creates jobs for local fishermen.

A drought is a prolonged dry period caused by low rainfall and high temperature. Areas such as Thal, Cholistan, Kharan and Thar get less than 250 mm rain. Its environmental consequences are:

• Desertification and dust storms: dry soil loses its vegetation and is blown away in sand and dust storms, turning fertile land into desert and reducing land for crops.
• Water shortage: rivers, wells and ground water dry up, so there is little water for drinking, irrigation and animals.
• Loss of vegetation and biodiversity: plants die, animals lose food and habitat, and people migrate from the area.

Radio (1.5 marks)

Radio reaches remote places where schools, newspapers and internet are limited. It broadcasts news, educational programmes and public service announcements that raise awareness on many problems, and gives farmers and industry information on market trends, weather forecasts and agricultural advice.

Television (1.5 marks)

Television spreads information with pictures, which makes it easy to understand. Its educational channels and programmes make learning accessible, and it builds public awareness. During the COVID-19 pandemic it continued the education of millions of students through recorded lectures and animated videos.

The book calls these the measures to meet the challenge. They remove the constraints on individuals and improve both national integration and socio-economic progress. Any four (2 marks each):

1. Initiatives for education

Provide high-quality education to everyone regardless of socioeconomic status, with common standards so that everyone feels included. Civic education increases involvement in local and national events. Article 25 (A) guarantees free and compulsory education for ages 5 to 16.

2. Economic empowerment

Create employment opportunities and skill development to reduce poverty, and provide resources and capital to small enterprises and entrepreneurs to boost local development. A person free of poverty has time and means to contribute.

3. Appreciation of diversity

Enforce anti-discrimination laws so that everyone can engage fully in national life, and celebrate cultural diversity so that all groups feel united and part of one another.

4. Developing institutions

Ensure good governance: accountability, openness and effectiveness in government institutions boost public confidence and civic participation. Support community-based organisations that promote integration.

5. Enhancing infrastructure facilities

Build public transport, communication networks and roadways (such as the motorways) to reduce distances and include outlying populations. More contact among communities means better understanding.

Conclusion

Together these actions create an atmosphere in which every citizen, whatever his or her class, gender, region or religion, can contribute to socio-economic progress and national unity. They remove the barriers of poverty, ignorance, discrimination, weak institutions and isolation.

Pakistan's telecom sector has grown fast, but providing services in all parts of the country is still difficult. Four major challenges are:

1. Economic constraints

Building telecom infrastructure in sparsely populated areas is very expensive, and the return on investment is low, so private companies do not expand services there. Government subsidies and incentives help, but limited public funds restrict the pace of development. This is why some economically deprived areas of Pakistan have poor connectivity.

2. Geographical barriers

Pakistan's harsh mountains, deserts and distant rural areas make it hard to lay cables, build towers and maintain constant service. The northern mountains of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan and parts of Balochistan are extremely difficult to reach.

3. Security concerns

Conflicts and insurgency in parts of Balochistan and the former FATA make companies unwilling to invest because of the risk of damage or disruption. Areas near international borders and the Line of Control also face connectivity problems. In parts of Gilgit-Baltistan and AJK the Special Communication Organization (SCO) provides services because private companies do not go there.

4. Power supply issues

Telecom towers and exchanges need reliable electricity. Many rural and remote areas suffer regular power outages or have no electricity at all, which makes it hard to operate and maintain equipment.

Conclusion

These challenges create a digital divide between cities and remote regions. Subsidies, satellite and fibre links, solar-powered towers and better security can help overcome them.

The European Union was officially established on 1 November 1993. Pakistan is not a member, but has a multidimensional relationship with it; diplomatic relations with the European Economic Community date from 1962. Four aspects are reviewed below (2 marks each).

1. Economic cooperation

Role: the EU is one of Pakistan's main trading partners for textiles, clothing and agricultural goods. GSP+ status has significantly boosted exports. Critical view: to keep GSP+ Pakistan must comply with international conventions on labour rights, human rights and environment; non-compliance may cost these benefits.

2. Political engagement

Role: the Strategic Engagement Plan (June 2019) built a partnership on shared values; regular dialogues cover human rights, governance and counter-terrorism and align Pakistan's policies with international norms. Critical view: complaints about human rights and governance can strain relations.

3. Development assistance

Role: EU aid supports education, rural development, governance and health; under the MIP 2021-27 the EU allocated EUR 265 million in grants for 2021-2024. Critical view: corruption and bureaucratic inefficiency reduce its effective use; transparency is needed.

4. Counter-terrorism and security

Role: intelligence exchange, counter-radicalization and action against illegal trafficking contribute to regional and global security. Critical view: domestic insurgencies and geopolitical issues challenge these efforts.

Other aspects (for extra points)

Human rights and governance: adherence is crucial for trade benefits, but free speech, minority rights and judicial independence need reform. Environment: EU projects help climate change mitigation, but Pakistan must enforce its environmental policies.

Conclusion: the relationship brings growth, aid and security, but Pakistan can deepen it only by meeting international standards, improving governance and using aid well.

Internal causes (4 marks)

• Political deadlock after the 1970 elections: the Awami League won 160 of 162 East Pakistan seats and the PPP 81 seats, all from West Pakistan; no party had national stature. Bhutto boycotted the Assembly session and Yahya postponed it on 2 March 1971.
• Six Points and provincial autonomy: Mujib refused to compromise on the Six Points, which the government saw as a threat to Pakistan's unity.
• Economic grievances: East Pakistanis felt that their earnings were used to develop West Pakistan.
• Military operation (24 March 1971): it restored order in cities but alienated the Bengali population. Critically, it was the failure of the regime and all parties to reach a political settlement.

External causes: role of India (4 marks)

• Revenge for 1965: India saw the crisis as an opportunity to avenge the 1965 war and break Pakistan.
• Shelter to separatists: most Awami League leaders fled to India, which gave them shelter and support.
• Mukti Bahni: India trained and financed this terrorist group to wage guerrilla war against the Pakistan army.
• Direct invasion: India intervened on 21 November 1971 and declared open war on 3 December 1971, taking advantage of the fact that East Pakistan was a thousand miles from West Pakistan and its supply lines were cut.

Conclusion

Internal political failure created the crisis and India exploited it militarily. The Pakistan army, less than 50,000 regular troops a thousand miles from its base, faced a hostile population, Mukti Bahni and about twenty times more Indian troops. On 16 December 1971 General Niazi agreed to a ceasefire and East Pakistan became Bangladesh.

After 1857 Muslims lost property, jobs and power while Hindus advanced. This deprivation made them conscious of their separate identity and rights, which strengthened the Two-Nation theory.

The book states that Sir Syed was the first person to use the word Nation for the Muslims of the sub-continent.

SEATO (1954) and CENTO (1955) were Cold War military alliances led by the US, which Pakistan joined for security and military aid.

The book says militant groups retaliated against Pakistan's participation in the War on Terror, causing a surge in terrorism and instability. Tourism, industry and education suffered rather than grew.

Afghanistan and the Central Asian states are landlocked. Pakistan's warm water ports (Karachi, Bin Qasim, Gwadar) give them the shortest route to the sea, so Pakistan handles their transit trade.

The landlocked Central Asian States can reach the Arabian Sea most quickly through Afghanistan and Pakistan (Gwadar, Karachi, CPEC). Pakistan is also a transit route for energy (CASA-1000, TAPI), so it is not irrelevant for energy.

The Government of India Act 1935, with some adjustments, was adopted as the interim constitution until the 1956 constitution.

Quaid-i-Azam established the Refugee Relief Fund; people deposited huge sums in it, which were used for the refugees.

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) promotes education for all, with a focus on literacy, teacher training and inclusive education.

Quaid-i-Azam wanted Pakistan to be a democratic state run on the golden principles of Islam, with equal rights for all citizens. The other options are the opposite of what he did.

Saindak (Chaghi, Balochistan) is a copper and gold mine; its copper deposits contain minor quantities of gold and silver. Salt comes from Khewra and coal from Thar and Lakhra.

The greenhouse effect is the natural process that keeps the Earth warm by trapping the sun's heat in the atmosphere.

Sunlight passes through the atmosphere and warms the Earth's surface. The warm surface gives off heat (infrared radiation). Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and CFCs absorb this heat and send part of it back to the surface. Without this effect the Earth would be about -20 °C (book value).

When burning of fossil fuels adds more of these gases, more heat is trapped and the Earth's temperature rises: this is global warming.

• Social unrest and protests: widespread unemployment creates dissatisfaction among the population, which leads to protests and challenges to governance.
• Higher crime: frustrated and poor unemployed people may turn to crime; stress can also lead to drug abuse and even involvement in anti-state activities.
• Political instability: economic hardship and anger against the government weaken political stability, while higher welfare costs strain public finances.

A pluralistic society is one in which people of different religions, ethnic groups and cultures live together with equal rights and take part fully in national life. Quaid-e-Azam envisioned Pakistan as such a society:

• Equal opportunities: every citizen, irrespective of religious or ethnic background, would contribute to the socio-economic and cultural growth of the country.
• Full participation of minorities in public life, government and the economy, with equal rights and protection, so that Pakistan could use the talents of its diverse population.
• Religious freedom: "You may belong to any religion or caste or creed, that has nothing to do with the business of the State" (11 August 1947).
• Culture of peace: tolerance and understanding among religious and ethnic groups, based on justice, equality and human dignity.

• Lower carbon emissions: using solar panels or wind turbines on livestock farms reduces reliance on fossil fuels and cuts carbon emissions, contributing to environmental sustainability.
• Lower costs and energy efficiency: solar-powered water pumps, lighting, fans and milk chilling make farms energy-efficient and cost-effective in the long run, especially in remote areas without grid electricity.
• Biogas from manure: anaerobic digestion of animal manure produces biogas for energy and organic fertilizer, which reduces greenhouse gases and the use of chemical fertilizers.

Biodiversity is the variety of plant and animal life in an area. Deforestation, the large-scale cutting of trees, affects it in three ways:

• Loss of habitat: animals, birds and microorganisms lose their homes and food when forests are cut, so their numbers fall.
• Extinction of species: some tree and animal species may disappear permanently.
• Degraded ecosystem: less vegetation reduces evapotranspiration, disturbs the ecosystem and degrades air, water and soil quality; soil erosion and silt harm rivers and aquatic life.

• Water quality monitoring: modern sensors and equipment check oxygen levels, temperature and pH, so optimal water conditions are maintained and fish stay healthy.
• Selective breeding and better feed: scientific breeding programmes improve growth rates and disease resistance, and commercial pellets give balanced nutrition with less waste.
• Disease control, preservation and marketing: modern disease management, cold storage and processing reduce losses and improve quality, while GPS, sonar and selective gear in fishing reduce bycatch and overfishing.

Ecologically sustainable methods reduce flood risk by working with nature rather than against it:

• Plant trees along river banks and on slopes: forests hold soil and slow run-off, reducing erosion and silt; the book mentions planting trees (such as eucalyptus) along river banks and stopping deforestation for fuel.
• Store and spread flood water: small and large storage dams (Rawal, Khanpur, Kurram Garhi) store rain water for later use, and inundation canals carry extra water to dry areas instead of letting it flood.
• Early warning and planned land use: forecasting with weather radars, warnings, evacuation routes and keeping people away from flood plains; fair water sharing under the 1991 Water Accord monitored by IRSA.

Dredging of canals in winter and protecting wetlands also let rivers carry water safely.

Business (1.5 marks)

In industry the internet supports automation, supply chain management and access to global markets. In services it provides online services, customer support and digital marketing. In trade it offers online shopping, digital payments and worldwide trade. Email gives fast, cheap exchange of documents and orders with customers anywhere.

Education (1.5 marks)

The internet offers e-learning platforms, online courses and online degree programmes, and gives access to a large range of educational resources for research. It supports video classes and digital classrooms, and builds digital literacy and lifelong learning. Email lets students and teachers share assignments and communicate easily.

After the PPP won the 2008 elections (PM Yousaf Raza Gilani, President Asif Ali Zardari), it took these steps:

• Restoration of judges dismissed by Musharraf, which strengthened the independence of the judiciary and the rule of law.
• 18th Amendment (April 2010): restored the 1973 constitution to its original parliamentary form, removed the president's power to dissolve the assembly, and increased provincial autonomy (departments devolved, 50% share of provinces in natural resources).
• 7th NFC Award (2009): raised the provinces' share in federal revenue from 45% to 57.5%, reducing the grievances of smaller provinces.

Evaluation: these steps strengthened parliament and the federation, and for the first time an elected government completed its term and handed power to another (2013). But terrorism, high inflation and slow growth (about 3%) limited their success.

Mohenjo-Daro, in Sindh, is one of the world's oldest planned cities, belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization (about 2500 BCE) and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its style of civilisation was urban and highly organised:

• Advanced urban planning: straight streets crossing at right angles in a grid, with separate residential blocks and a raised citadel.
• Complex drainage system: covered brick drains along the streets carried waste water away from houses, showing concern for hygiene.
• Architecture of mud and baked bricks: standard-sized bricks, houses with wells and bathrooms, and public buildings such as the Great Bath and a granary.
• Organised society and trade: uniform weights and measures and seals point to a well-organised economy; the book says other civilisations, including Old Egypt, adopted designs of such early urban centres.

Extremist ideologies and terrorist activities pose a significant threat to national unity. Pakistan has been a victim of such ideologies for the last few decades. Their impact on cohesion:

• Fear and division: terrorism creates fear and suspicion among the population and divides people along religious, sectarian and ethnic lines.
• Damage to harmony and minorities: attacks on places of worship and minorities weaken religious harmony and the sense of equal citizenship.
• Diverts resources and slows development: money and attention go to security instead of education and welfare; investment and tourism fall, which increases poverty and resentment.

The book says a clear strategy against such ideologies with political consensus is crucial to protect national cohesion.

• Powers shifted to the president: the 8th Amendment (1985), passed as Zia's condition for lifting martial law, transferred many administrative powers of the prime minister to the president. The balance tilted from a parliamentary to a semi-presidential system.
• Article 58(2)(b): the president got the discretionary power to dissolve the National Assembly and dismiss the prime minister. The prime minister became dependent on the president's goodwill.
• Result, political instability: Zia dismissed Junejo (1988), Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed Benazir (1990) and Nawaz Sharif (1993), and Leghari dismissed Benazir (1996). No government completed its tenure until the power was removed (1997) and finally abolished by the 18th Amendment (2010).

1. Powers moved to the President: the 8th Amendment (1985), incorporated when General Zia ul Haq restored the constitution, transferred some crucial powers from the office of the Prime Minister to the President. The balance tilted towards the President.
2. Article 58 (2-B): the President got the power to dissolve the National Assembly (and so to send the Prime Minister home). The Prime Minister became dependent on the President, and the decisions of the military government were exempted from judicial review.
3. Controlled democracy: the amendment changed a true parliamentary democracy into a controlled democracy. Elected governments were dismissed under 58 (2-B) until the 13th Amendment (1997) took this power away and made the Prime Minister powerful again.

Article 34 of the 1973 Constitution (Principles of Policy) states: "Steps shall be taken to ensure full participation of women in all spheres of national life."

Meaning: the state is directed to bring women into education, employment, politics, health care and every other field, so that they are not left behind. It works together with Article 25, which forbids discrimination on the basis of sex and allows special provisions for women and children.

Steps taken under it: reserved seats for women (60 in the National Assembly, 17 in the Senate), the Protection against Harassment of Women at the Workplace Act 2010 for a safe working environment, and the acid crime law (2011). Women such as Samina Baig, Sana Mir and Maryam Mukhtiar show women taking part in all spheres of life.

Hydroelectric power uses the energy of moving river water at dams such as Tarbela, Mangla and Ghazi Barotha. Its advantages are:

• Renewable and sustainable: river water is naturally replenished, so the source does not run out.
• Low operating cost and reliable: once the dam is built, electricity is cheap to produce and supply is reliable and stable.
• Clean: it reduces greenhouse gas emissions compared with fossil fuel plants. Dams also store water for irrigation.

Mangroves grow on the tidal flats of the Indus and Hub delta. They help against climate change in three ways:

• Carbon sequestration: they capture carbon from the atmosphere and store it in their roots and sediments, up to five times more carbon per hectare than land forests.
• Coastal protection: they protect Pakistan's vulnerable coastline from rising sea levels, sea storms, cyclones and tsunamis.
• Biodiversity and livelihoods: they support a rich ecosystem and fish and shrimp breeding, increasing the resilience of the environment and of coastal communities.

Water on Earth is divided into salt (ocean) water, 97.5%, and fresh water, only 2.5%.

Of this small amount of fresh water, nearly 69% is frozen in glaciers and icecaps, and less than 1% is accessible for human use in rivers, lakes and ground water.

Because usable fresh water is so limited and is being polluted by municipal, industrial and agricultural waste, conservation is essential for future needs.

Introduction

Pak-US relations have been close but unstable. Both before and after the 9/11 attacks (11 September 2001) the relationship changed with US strategic needs, and it had a large effect on Pakistan's socio-economic condition.

Pre-9/11 relations

• Cold War alliances: to oppose Soviet dominance, Pakistan joined the US in SEATO and CENTO and received significant financial and military support.
• Soviet-Afghan War (1979 to 1989): Pakistan was an essential ally and aided the Mujahideen with substantial US financial and military support.
• Sanctions and disengagement: US concern over nuclear proliferation led to sanctions after Pakistan's nuclear programme was disclosed in the late 1970s, culminating in the Pressler Amendment (1985), which shut off aid. The 1990s saw scant cooperation, and the 1998 nuclear tests brought more sanctions.

Evaluation: the relationship was transactional. The US came close when it needed Pakistan (Cold War, Afghan war) and moved away when its need ended, leaving Pakistan with a feeling of being abandoned.

Post-9/11 relations

• Strategic partnership: Pakistan became a front-line ally in the War on Terror. President Pervez Musharraf's government allowed use of air bases and shared intelligence, and the US gave billions of dollars in economic and military help (about $10 billion since 2001).
• Trust deficit: the US accused Pakistan of a double game with the Taliban.
• Drone strikes: US drone attacks in the tribal areas killed civilians and violated sovereignty, angering the public.

Impact on Pakistan

• Economy: aid gave temporary stability but created dependence, debt and inflation; instability discouraged investment; corruption reduced the benefit of aid.
• Security: militant retaliation caused a surge in terrorism and diverted resources from development.
• Society: military operations in FATA displaced people; anti-American sentiment grew.

Critical evaluation and conclusion

In both eras Pakistan gained aid and weapons but paid a heavy price in sanctions, terrorism and dependence. The relationship was driven by US strategic interests rather than a long-term partnership. As the book concludes, Pakistan needs a more impartial and independent stance in its economic and security strategies for stability and long-term progress.

Introduction

Z.A. Bhutto came to power after the fall of Dhaka (December 1971) and ruled till 5 July 1977. He gave the country the unanimous 1973 constitution.

Nationalisation

• Bhutto had socialist leanings and was against the industrialist class.
• In 1972 he nationalised heavy industry, and later banks and educational institutions.
• Critical view: the steps were taken in good faith to reduce the power of a few families, but they hurt the economy: private investment stopped, state units were badly managed and ran at a loss, and production fell.

Foreign affairs

• Simla Agreement (1972): both countries got back territories occupied in 1971.
• Delhi Agreement (1974): return of prisoners of war.
• Seeing that the US and Europe did nothing to save Pakistan in 1971, he repealed defence pacts with the US and left the Commonwealth, following an independent policy and closer ties with Muslim countries.
• Nuclear programme: after India's 1974 test he declared that Pakistan would eat grass but get nuclear capability, and invited Dr Abdul Qadeer Khan.
• Critical view: foreign policy restored national prestige, but leaving Western alliances cost Pakistan support.

End of his government

• He called early elections on 7 March 1977, expecting a 2/3 majority.
• Nine parties formed the PNA; the PPP won 156 of 200 seats, the PNA only 36.
• The PNA alleged massive rigging and launched violent country-wide protests; partial martial law in Lahore and Multan failed.
• His intolerance of opponents (Balochistan government dismissed, operation against Marri and Mengal tribes, jailing of opponents) had weakened his support.
• On 5 July 1977 General Zia-ul-Haq imposed martial law; Bhutto was later executed on 4 April 1979.

Conclusion

Bhutto's era gave Pakistan a constitution, confidence and a nuclear direction, but nationalisation and authoritarian politics damaged the economy and led to his fall.

National solidarity means the unity of all groups of a nation for common goals. National integration consolidates national identity, which is needed to protect the country against internal and foreign threats. The book gives five elements; any four (2 marks each):

1. National identity and patriotism

A shared identity and pride in being Pakistani unites diverse groups. Celebrating national symbols, history and achievements builds a collective national consciousness. Teaching history, national heroes and the significance of independence instils unity and pride.

2. Inclusive governance and political stability

Strong, transparent and inclusive democratic institutions that represent all segments give everyone a voice. Efficient, corruption-free governance that delivers public services equitably builds trust in the state. In Pakistan the Senate is the symbol of equal representation of the federating units.

3. Cultural and religious harmony

Dialogue among religious communities builds respect and reduces tensions. Festivals, arts and cultural exchanges increase mutual understanding, and exposing youth to the country's different cultures brings fruitful results. The Kartarpur Corridor is an example.

4. Social and economic equity

Access to economic opportunities and development projects for all regions and communities reduces disparities and gives a sense of belonging. Welfare programmes for the poor and marginalised create cohesion. More focus should be on equity than equality.

5. Awareness through education

Educating citizens about their rights, responsibilities and unity in diversity creates informed, engaged citizens. Responsible media and positive campaigns promote unity by highlighting common goals and values.

Conclusion

When these elements are strong, centripetal forces outweigh the divisive ones and the nation stays united.

Challenges faced by the mining industry (5 marks)

Pakistan is rich in minerals such as copper and gold (Reko Diq, Saindak), coal (Thar), chromite, marble and granite, but the mining industry faces these challenges:

• Weak and inconsistent policies: mining policies are not clearly defined; bureaucratic delays and weak regulatory frameworks discourage investment and restrict development.
• Inadequate infrastructure: isolated mining regions lack facilities, which raises operating costs and reduces competitiveness.
• Obsolete methods: old mining methods and practices reduce production and damage the environment.
• Lack of capital and investment: limited access to finance hinders growth and modernisation.
• Connectivity problems: without a reliable road or railway network, the true potential of minerals cannot be exploited.
• Environmental and social harm: mining causes deforestation, soil erosion, water contamination, dust and habitat destruction, and it can displace local communities.

Protective measures (3 marks)

• Regulatory enforcement: enact and enforce strict environmental laws and standards for responsible mining.
• Environmental audits and impact assessments to check compliance and find areas of improvement.
• Modern mining technology that reduces waste and conserves water.
• Land reclamation and restoration of mined sites.
• Dust control with water sprays and vegetation barriers.
• Protected areas and buffer zones around mines, and proper waste disposal to prevent soil and water pollution.

Conclusion

With clear policies, investment, modern technology and strict environmental protection, Pakistan's mining industry can create jobs, raise exports and support sustainable economic growth.

The ideology of Pakistan aims at a state based on Islamic principles with democracy, social justice and protection of rights: an Islamic welfare state.

In 1906 the League aimed to protect and advance the political rights and interests of Muslims. Loyalty to the British was also an objective, but the main purpose was to safeguard Muslim rights. Pakistan was demanded only in 1940.

The rehabilitation of about 6.5 million refugees was one of the major early problems.

The Karakoram (with K2) and the Himalayas lie in the north of Pakistan. The Hindu Kush is in the north-west, and the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges are the western mountains.

Pakistan extends from about 24° N (just north of the Tropic of Cancer, $23.5^{\circ }$ N) to 37° N; the book gives 24.35° N to 37.05° N. Option C is the closest.

The Objectives Resolution (1949) laid down the aims and principles of the future constitution and became its Preamble (1956, 1962) and Article 2-A (1973), so it is the ideological basis of the constitution.

The Senate is the upper house in which every province has equal seats, so it represents the federating units (provinces). The book calls it the symbol of equal representation of federating units. The National Assembly represents population.

Seats in the Senate are divided equally among the provinces (23 each), so it represents the federating units. Representation by population is the basis of the National Assembly.

National integration brings different groups together into a unified whole, giving the nation strength and solidarity against internal and external threats.

From SEATO and CENTO to the War on Terror, Pak-US ties have rested on security (military alliances and aid) and economic cooperation (financial assistance and trade).

The book calls the Second Five-Year Plan (1960 to 1965) the most successful plan in Pakistan's history; the country achieved more than its targets.

The Cabinet Mission (Sir Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander) issued its plan on 16 May 1946. Its key recommendations were:

• India would be a federation; the central government would deal only with Foreign Affairs, Defence and Communications.
• Provinces would form three groups: Group A (six Hindu-majority provinces), Group B (Punjab, Sindh, NWFP), Group C (Bengal and Assam), with maximum provincial autonomy.
• A province could leave the Indian Union after ten years.
• An interim government would run the centre until the constitution was framed and implemented.

Rights and duties are reciprocal: they go together like two sides of one coin. The relationship between the state and its citizens is give-and-take.

1. The right of one is the duty of another: my right to life and property means others have a duty not to harm them, and I have the same duty towards them.
2. The state gives rights, citizens give duties: the state provides security, justice, education and health; in return citizens pay taxes, obey laws, stay loyal and vote honestly. Without taxes the state cannot provide facilities.
3. Rights carry responsibilities: Article 29 of the UDHR says everyone has duties to the community. A citizen who demands rights but ignores duties harms society.

Quaid-i-Azam (RA) valued students highly: at his call they played an active role in the Pakistan Movement.

After independence he told them that the objective of the struggle had been achieved, so they should refrain from politics and use their energy in acquiring education. He said that as the future builders of the nation they must develop discipline, character and knowledge, and prepare themselves to serve Pakistan in every field.

He also warned them against provincialism, asking them to think of themselves only as Pakistanis and to strengthen national unity.

Under the 1973 Constitution the federal government has three organs:

1. Legislature (Parliament): makes laws. It has two houses: the National Assembly (336 members, elected on population for five years; passes money bills and elects the Prime Minister) and the Senate (96 members, equal seats for provinces, a permanent house).
2. Executive: runs the government and enforces laws. The Prime Minister, elected by the National Assembly, is its head and leads the cabinet, which is collectively responsible to Parliament. The President is head of state with nominal powers.
3. Judiciary: interprets the constitution and laws and gives justice. The Supreme Court is the highest court; its judges are appointed through the Judicial Commission and a Parliamentary Committee and retire at 65.

The Baluchistan plateau lies in the west of Pakistan, west of the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges, and covers most of the province of Baluchistan.

• Relief and climate: rugged terrain with scanty rainfall, mostly about 125 mm; only the highland around Quetta gets snowfall in winter, and most rain comes in winter. Deserts such as Kharan get less than 250 mm.
• Vegetation and farming: thin vegetation; juniper forests around Quetta (Ziarat) are declining. The unique karez irrigation (now tube wells) supports fruits and vegetables on small areas; nomadic livestock farming is common.
• Resources: rich in minerals (gold, copper, lead, sulphur, coal, natural gas, oil, manganese); Gwadar is an upcoming international port and Pasni and Ormara are fishing ports.

Location (1 mark)

Harappa is located in Sahiwal district, Punjab, near the old course of the River Ravi.

Significance (2 marks)

• It was the first site of the Indus Valley Civilization to be discovered and excavated (from 1921), so the whole civilisation is also called the Harappan civilisation. The book lists it as a renowned historical tourist destination.
• It shows a planned city of about 4500 years ago: baked-brick houses, drains, a citadel, large granaries, seals and standard weights, which tell us about the urban life, trade and skills of the people.
• Together with Mohenjo-Daro it proves that the land of Pakistan was the home of one of the world's earliest civilisations, making it important for history and tourism.

Answer (1 mark)

Yes. Pakistani culture is heterogeneous: it is made of many different ethnic, linguistic, religious and regional cultures, although they are bound together by Islam, Urdu and a common national identity.

Justification (2 marks)

• Ethnic diversity: Punjabis, Sindhis, Pashtuns, Baloch, Saraiki, Hindku, Kashmiri, Gilgiti, Balti and others, each with its own traditions and social structure.
• Linguistic diversity: around 70 languages, including Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi, Brahvi, Saraiki, Shina and Burushaski, with Urdu as the national language.
• Cultural variety: different dresses, cuisines and dances such as Bhangra and Khattak; festivals such as the Horse and Cattle Show, Sibi Mela and Shindoor Festival.
• Religious and geographical variety: Christians, Hindus, Sikhs and the Kalasha alongside the Muslim majority; mountains, plains, deserts and coast shape different ways of life.

1906 objectives (1.5 marks)

• Promote loyalty of Indian Muslims towards the British Government.
• Protect and advance Muslim political rights and present their needs to the Government.
• Prevent hostility among Muslims towards other communities.

1913 objectives (1.5 marks)

In March 1913, on Quaid-i-Azam's suggestion (after the annulment of the Bengal partition in 1911 and the Kanpur Mosque incident in 1912), the League gave up unconditional cooperation with the government. Its new aim was self-government for India, achieved in cooperation with other communities. So the 1906 aim was loyalty and protection of rights, while the 1913 aim was self-rule and Hindu-Muslim unity.

Urdu was declared the national language of Pakistan. Quaid-e-Azam announced this at Dhaka in March 1948, and the Constitution of 1973 (Article 251) confirms it. Reasons:

• Symbol of unity: Urdu is understood in every province and links speakers of about 70 regional languages, so the book calls it a symbol of unity.
• Role in the Pakistan Movement: the Urdu-Hindi controversy (1867) made Muslims aware of their separate identity; Urdu became a part of Muslim national identity.
• Rich literature and Islamic heritage: Urdu carries a large body of religious, literary and poetic works (for example Allama Iqbal's poetry) and borrows much from Arabic and Persian.

Non-alignment means not joining any power bloc and deciding foreign policy independently. After disappointment with SEATO and CENTO in the wars of 1965 and 1971, Pakistan left SEATO (1972-73) and CENTO (1979) and joined the Non-Aligned Movement in 1979.

• It keeps balanced relations with all major powers: a strategic partnership with China, working ties with the USA, and growing ties with Russia.
• It follows friendship with all and non-interference, as Quaid-i-Azam said: goodwill towards all nations and no aggressive designs.
• It works through multilateral forums (UN, OIC, SCO, ECO) and supports peaceful settlement of disputes and self-determination.

Islam gave women dignity and rights about 1400 years ago, when they were oppressed in many societies:

1. Equal human dignity: men and women are created from a single soul and are equal before Allah in faith and reward; the Holy Quran condemned the pre-Islamic custom of burying baby girls alive.
2. Rights in the family: a woman has the right to consent to marriage, to receive mahr (dower), to maintenance by her husband, and to a share in inheritance. Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) said that paradise lies under the feet of the mother, and in the Last Sermon he ordered kind treatment of women.
3. Social and economic rights: women may own property, earn and do business (as Hazrat Khadijah (RA) did), and seek knowledge, which is a duty of every Muslim man and woman.

The 1973 Constitution reflects this through Articles 25 and 34.

The Objectives Resolution, moved by Liaqat Ali Khan and passed on 12 March 1949, was the first step towards constitution-making in Pakistan. Its importance:

1. Foundation of all constitutions: it laid down the principles of the future constitution (sovereignty of Allah, democracy, federation, fundamental rights, independent judiciary, protection of minorities).
2. Preamble and Article 2-A: it was made the Preamble of the 1956 and 1962 Constitutions and, during Zia ul Haq's rule, the operative (substantive) part of the 1973 Constitution through Article 2-A.
3. Islam with democracy: it declared that power belongs to Allah and is used by the elected representatives of the people as a sacred trust, giving Pakistan its Islamic democratic identity.

Tourist attractions of Pakistan can be grouped into these categories:

• Historical (archaeological) attractions: Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Mehrgarh, Taxila, Takht-i-Bahi, Rohtas Fort, Lahore Fort and Shalimar Gardens.
• Religious attractions: Badshahi Mosque, shrines of saints, Kartarpur Sahib, Gurdwara Panja Sahib, Katas Raj Temples and Buddhist sites such as Jaulian.
• Commercial attractions: markets and malls of Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Sialkot, Faisalabad and the port city of Gwadar.
• Natural and adventure attractions: the Karakoram, Himalaya and Hindu Kush mountains, valleys such as Swat and Hunza, lakes, deserts (Thar, Cholistan) and beaches of the Arabian Sea.

The 3rd June Plan of Lord Mountbatten was passed by the British Parliament as the Indian Independence Act on 18 July 1947. Its main provisions were:

• Two independent dominions, India and Pakistan, would come into being on 15 August 1947 (Pakistan celebrated 14 August).
• Punjab and Bengal would be divided by a Boundary Commission.
• Each dominion would have its own Governor General and a Constituent Assembly to make its constitution and act as legislature.
• The Government of India Act 1935 would work as the interim constitution.
• British authority over India and the princely states would end; the states could join either dominion.

The Last Sermon (Khutba Hajjatul Wida, 10 AH, at Arafat) is called the first charter of human rights. About slaves it taught:

1. Kind treatment: the Holy Prophet (PBUH) ordered Muslims to take care of their slaves, to feed them what they themselves eat and clothe them as they themselves dress.
2. Equality of all humans: all people are from Adam and Adam was from dust; no Arab is superior to a non-Arab and no white to a black, except by piety. This removed the basis of treating slaves as inferior.
3. Sanctity of life and property: the life, property and honour of every person are sacred, so cruelty to any human being, free or slave, is forbidden.

Islam also encouraged freeing slaves as a great virtue. The same spirit is found in Article 4 of the UDHR and Article 11 of the 1973 Constitution, which prohibit slavery.

Introduction

Pakistan lies in South Asia between 24.35° N and 37.05° N and 61° E and 78° E (area 796,096 km²). It borders China, Afghanistan, Iran and India and has a 1,046 km coastline on the Arabian Sea near the Gulf. This location is a bridge between South Asia, Central Asia and West Asia.

Part 1: Role in global politics (4 marks)

• Neighbour of world powers: close to China and Russia in the north; the long boundary with India and the situation in Afghanistan make Pakistan central to regional security.
• Friendship with China: relations since 1949; Pakistan supported China's UN seat (1971); CPEC and the Belt and Road Initiative make Pakistan a key partner of China.
• Alliances and organizations: joined the UN (1947) and SEATO (1954) for US support; helped found the OIC (1969, Jeddah) and hosted its meetings; founded RCD (1964) which became ECO (1985); member of SAARC (1985).
• Afghanistan and the Muslim world: Afghanistan depends on Pakistan's support and routes; Pakistan's position near the Gulf links it with the Muslim countries of West Asia.

Part 2: Role in economic development (4 marks)

• Warm water ports: Karachi, Bin Qasim and Gwadar handle transit trade of landlocked Afghanistan and Central Asia; they connect with the North Atlantic and Asia Pacific trade routes.
• CPEC: the 2015 project from Kashgar to Gwadar brings investment, roads, energy and jobs.
• Land routes: Karakoram Highway (1,300 km) through Khunjerab to China, Khyber Pass to Afghanistan, RCD highway to Iran and Turkey, Wagah to India; linked with motorways and airports.
• Tourism and resources: from the Arabian Sea to K2, the location gives varied tourism and natural resources that can make the country self-sufficient.

Conclusion

Pakistan's location gives it strategic weight in world politics and the chance to become a trade and energy corridor for the region. Good relations with neighbours and internal stability are needed to use this advantage fully.

Pakistan's location

Pakistan lies at the junction of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. It borders China in the north, Afghanistan in the north-west, Iran in the west and India in the east, and has a long coastline on the Arabian Sea near the Persian Gulf.

Role in global politics (4 marks)

• Cold War ally: the US saw Pakistan as an essential ally against Soviet expansion (SEATO, CENTO) and in the Soviet-Afghan War (1979 to 1989).
• War on Terror: its border with Afghanistan made Pakistan a front-line ally after 9/11.
• Bridge between powers: it links China with the Middle East and Russia with the Arabian Sea; Russia may gain access to South Asia through Gwadar.
• Security concerns: a long border with India and the Kashmir dispute make security a key determinant; the location also gives it weight in SCO, ECO and OIC.

Role in economic development (4 marks)

• CPEC: the flagship project of China's BRI (over $62 billion) uses Pakistan's location to link Kashgar with Gwadar, bringing energy projects, motorways and SEZs.
• Gateway to Central Asia: the landlocked Central Asian States get their shortest trade route to the sea through Pakistan.
• Energy corridor: transit for CASA-1000 electricity and the TAPI gas pipeline.
• Trade and investment: warm-water ports and nearness to the Gulf attract investment from Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Qatar and support remittances.

Conclusion: location is Pakistan's greatest asset. It raises Pakistan's value in world politics and can make it a regional trade and energy hub, but it also brings security challenges that require careful management.

Historical and strategic importance (4 marks)

• Cold War: Pakistan joined the US in SEATO (1954) and CENTO (1955) to oppose Soviet dominance, receiving significant military and financial support.
• Soviet-Afghan War (1979 to 1989): Pakistan was an essential ally and channelled US support to the Afghan Mujahideen.
• Sanctions period: nuclear concerns led to sanctions, the Pressler Amendment (1985) and further sanctions after the 1998 nuclear tests.
• War on Terror: after 9/11 (2001) Pakistan became a front-line ally, allowing use of air bases and sharing intelligence. The US remains a major source of aid, trade and support in bodies like the IMF.

Impact on politics (2 marks)

• US support often strengthened military governments (for example President Musharraf after 9/11).
• Drone strikes and the trust deficit created anti-American sentiment and affected domestic politics; security operations in FATA led to its merger with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (25th Amendment, 2018).

Impact on economy (2 marks)

• Positive: about $10 billion in aid since 2001 temporarily stabilized the economy and funded some development projects.
• Negative: dependence on aid, rising debt and inflation, and terrorism that discouraged foreign investment and diverted resources from development.

Conclusion: the US has been strategically important to Pakistan, but the relationship has been unstable. Pakistan needs a balanced and independent policy for long-term progress.

Introduction

Ayub Khan's 1962 Constitution kept the Islamic character of the state. Its Islamic provisions, including its Principles of Policy, were:

Islamic provisions

1. Name of the state: the official name of the country was Islamic Republic of Pakistan ("Islamic" was restored by the First Amendment, 1963).
2. Objectives Resolution as Preamble: the Objectives Resolution of 1949 was made the Preamble of the constitution.
3. Muslim President: the President had to be a Muslim.
4. Laws according to Islam: no law was to be made against the teachings of Islam; laws had to follow the Quran and Sunnah.
5. Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology: set up to advise the President, the Governors, the National Assembly and the Provincial Assemblies on whether a law was in accordance with Islam. Its opinion was advisory and not binding.
6. Islamic Research Institute: set up to do research in Islam and help reconstruct Muslim society on truly Islamic lines.
7. Islamic way of life: Muslims were to be enabled to order their lives, individually and collectively, according to Islam.
8. Teaching of the Quran and Islamiat: teaching of the Holy Quran and Islamiat to Muslims was to be made compulsory.
9. Elimination of riba (usury) as early as possible.
10. Organisation of Zakat, Auqaf and mosques to be properly managed.
11. Unity of the Muslim world: bonds of unity among Muslim countries were to be strengthened.

Conclusion

These provisions kept Pakistan an Islamic state, but most of them were in the Principles of Policy and the Advisory Council's advice was not binding, so they could not be enforced by courts.